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LIBRAR  V 

OF   THK 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

:  ~ti,& 


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Accession 


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JL.0595.4...       T3aM 


Civil,  PvnjffiElM 


A  v(lATl»;;  LIBRARY 


or  CM  -FO..MIA 


CIVIL 
D.oiC 

ASSOCIATE  UK* 


A  TEXT-BOOK 


ON 


PLAIN  LETTERING 


BY 


HENRY  S.   JACOBY, 

,  i 
PROFESSOR  OF  BRIDGE  ENGINEERING  AND  GRAPHICS  IN  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY. 


OF   T 

UNIVERSITY 
or 


SECOND   THOUSAND. 


NEW    YORK: 

THE    ENGINEEH1NU    Ntws    ITULISHING    COMPANY. 

220    BROADWAY. 

1901. 


T57| 


Engineering 
Library 


COPYRIGHT,  1895, 

BY 
HENRY   S.  JACOBY. 


Braunwoith,  Munn  &  Barber 

Printers  and  Binders 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y, 


PREFACE 


This  volume  hns  been  prepared  to  meet  the  need  <>f  the 
technical  schools  lor  a  text-book  which  should  j;ive  a  de- 
tailed treatment  of  the  Rom;in,  Gothic,  and  some  other 
Mvk-s  of  plain  letters  which  are  suitable  for  engineering  and 
architectural  drawings. 

The  Roman  letters  are  used  in  the  discussion  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  proportioning  and  of  spacing,  since  their  main  ele- 
ments form  the  basis  of  the  ther  styles  shown,  and  the 
methods  which  are  developed  for  the  former  ;ilso  apply  to 
the  latter  with  but  little,  if  any,  modification.  The  system 
of  measurements  which  has  been  adapted  is  such  that  the 
proportions  are  expressed  in  terms  of  a  convenient  unit,  and 
permit  letters  of  the  normal  as  well  as  of  other  relations  be- 
tween width  and  height  to  be  constructed  with  equal  facility. 
The  measurements  are  the  result  of  a  careful  study  of  the 
form  of  each  letter  in  comparison  with  the  others  in  the 
alphabet,  and  of  a  critical  examination  of  the  best  available 
models. 


This  is  believed  to  be  the  first  attempt  to  reduce  spacing 
to  a  definite  system  which  enables  any  draftsman  at  once  to 
make  the  final  location  of  the  letters.  In  spacing,  the  same 
scale  is  employed  as  in  proportioning,  and  all  the  spacing 
guides  for  the  most  useful  styles  of  letters  are  indicated  in  a 
table  covering  a  single  page  of  the  text. 

The  detailed  description  of  the  methods  of  proportion  MIL: 
and  spacing  and  of  the  various  changes  in  form  and  details 
by  which  given  results  are  obtained,  are  so  completely  illus- 
trated that  the  full  significance  of  each  statement  may  be 
comprehended  without  an  undue  expenditure  of  time.  In 
writing  the  description,  the  wants  of  students  who  are  in 
schools  where  the  instruction  in  lettering  is  limited  to  that 
on  the  drawings  required  in  other  courses  of  study,  have 
also  been  kept  in  mind.  In  some  of  the  leading  technical 
schools  the  importance  of  lettering  is  recognized  by  a  sepa- 
rate course  of  instruction. 

Ornamental  letters  are  excluded,   because  they  are   but 


105954 


IV 


PREFACE. 


seldom  required  by  engineers  and  architects  and  constitute 
the  principal  part  of  the  contents  of  most  of  the  books  on 
alphabets  heretofore  published. 

Plates  I-XXIII  were  reproduced  by  photo-engraving  from 
drawings  made  by  the  author.  While  the  engraving  and 
press-work  give  evidence  of  unusual  skill  and  care,  it  may 
be  well  to  state  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  will  examine 
these  plates  critically,  that  the  extremities  of  some  of  the 
serifs  were  drawn  a  little  too  light  on  several  of  the  plates 
on  which  no  dimensions  are  given,  and  hence  were  slightly 
shortened  in  the  mechanical  process  of  reduction. 

The  kind  co-operation  of  a  number  of  architects  and  en- 
gineers is  gratefully  appreciated,  and  is  duly  acknowledged 
in  the  text.  Special  mention,  however,  is  due  to  Professor 


C.  FRANCIS  OSBORNE,  of  Cornell  University,  for  valuable  sug- 
gestions relating  to  lettering  for  architectural  drawings;  to 
EDWARD  MOLITOR  for  his  excellent  drawing,  illustrating  map 
lettering;  to  the  Superintendent  of  the  United  States  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey  for  permission  to  use  the  standards  of 
lettering  adopted  by  the  Survey;  to  HENRY  GANNETT,  the 
Chief  Topographer  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey, 
for  similar  permission;  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Mississippi 
River  Commission  and  to  Colonel  O.  M.  POE,  Corps  of  En- 
gineers, U.  S.  Army,  for  permission  to  use  portions  of  charts 
prepared  under  their  respective  directions. 

HENRY  S.  JACOBY. 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  August  19,  1895. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  CONSTRUCTION   OF  LETTERS. 

AKT.      I.  The  Elements  of  Letters, 

2.  General  Proportion, 

).  Relative  Proportion, 

4.  Roman  Capitals,          ...... 

;.  General  Details  of  Construction, 

o.  Roman  Small 

7.  Italics 

8.  Stump  Writing, 

9.  Gothic  Capitals, 

10.  Gothic  Small 

1 1 .  Roman  Old  Style 

12.  French  Old  Style 

i).  Modified  Proportions, 

14.  Modified  Styles, 

15.  Large  and  Small  Capitals,          .... 

16.  Construction  of  Arabic  Numerals, 


PACE. 


12 

16 
16 
18 

20 
21 
21 


CHAPTER   II. 
THE   SPACING  OF  LETTERS. 


AKT.   1 7.  Theory  of  Spacing, 

1 8.  Standard  of  Reference, 

19.  Principles  of  Spacing, 

20.  Methods  of  Spacing,     . 

2 1 .  Rules  for  Spacing,    . 
Spacing  Roman  Small, 
Spacing  Stump  Writing, 
Spacing  Gothic  Letters, 

3$.  Word  Spacing, 
26.  Table  for  Spacing, 


22. 
23- 
24- 


PAGE. 

JO 

.          II 


16 

'7 
37 

4<> 


CHAPTER   III. 


TITLES. 
27 

28        AKT.  27.   Main  Titles,     .... 
28  28.  Contents  of  the  Main  Title, 

V 


42 
42 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


ART.  29.  One-line  Titles  or  Sub-titles, 

30.  Position  of  Main  Title, 

31.  Proportioning  a  Title,        .. 

32.  Determining  the  Lettering  Scales, 


PAGE. 

44 
•  45 

45 
.  48 


33.  The  Construction  Completed,    .         .         .         .         .         .50 

34.  Examples  of  Titles, 51 

35.  Explanatory  Notes,  .......  54 

36.  Auxiliaries  to  Titles,      .         .         .        .  .         .         .55 

37.  Scales 56 

38.  Meridians,    .         .         .         .         .         '.         .         .         .         .57 

39.  Borders, 58 

CHAPTER  IV. 
THE    SELECTION   OF  STYLES. 

ART.  40.  The  Roman  Style, 50 

4 1 .  Stump  Writing,  .         .        .         .         .         .         .         .60 

42.  The  Gothic  Style, ''..'.          60 

43.  Standards  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,         .         .       61 

44.  Standards  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  ...          62 

45.  Lettering  on  Patent  Office  Drawings, 63 

46.  Lettering  on  Architectural  Drawings,  ....          63 

47.  Lettering  on  Engineering  Drawings,       .....       65 

48.  Map  Lettering, '66 

40.  Lettering  Tracings  for  Blue  Printing,     .          ....       08 


ART.  50.  Lettering  for  Photo-mechanical  Reproduction, 

5 1 .  Freehand  Lettering, 

52.  Printing  Type, 


PAGE. 
69 

•      T> 
74 


CHAPTER  V. 
MECHANICAL   AIDS. 

ART.  53.  Lettering  Triangles, 77 

54.  Stencil  Plates, 79 

55.  Lettering  with  Metallic  Type, 79 

56.  Mechanical  Map  Lettering,    .         .         .        .         .         .         .81 

PLATES. 

I.  Construction  of  Roman  Capitals,        ..... 

II.  Construction  of  Roman  Small  and  Stump  Writing, 

III.  Construction  of  Gothic  Letters,  ..... 

IV.  Roman,  Italic,  and  Stump  Writing 

V.  Hairline  Gothic  and  Antique 

VI.  Construction  of  Roman  Old  Style 

VII.  Roman  and  French  Old  Styles 

VIII.  Construction  of  Numerals, 

IX.  Studies  in  Spacing, 

X.  Examples  of  Spacing,  ........ 

XI.  One-line  Titles  or  Sub-titles, 

XII.  Plan  of  a  Title, 


CONTHNTS. 


VII 


XIII. 
XIV. 

\\ 

XVI. 
XVII. 
XVIII. 
XIX 

\\ 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI 

XXVII 

XXVIII 

XXIX. 

XXX. 


Diagram  for  Proportioning, 

Specimen  Title — District  ul'Columl'i.i 

Example  of  Title — Ithaca  Sewerage,      .... 
Example  of  Title — Connecting  Rod  of  I'umping  Engine,   . 
Examples  of  Four  Title*, 


XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 

Lrltering  and  Titles  on  ArchitiYtm.il  Dr.iwings,        ....  XXXV. 

Explanatory  Notes XXXVI. 

XXXVII. 

Meridians XXXVIII. 

U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  Borders XXXIX. 

Alphabets  for  Architectural  Drawings, XL. 

Lettering  on  a  Topographical  Map,  ......  Ml 

Freehand  Map  of  Boston XIII 

U.  S.  Coast  Survey — Classification  and  Rules  for  Lettering,       .        .  Xl.lll. 

U.  S.  Coast  Survey— Classification  and  Rules  for  Lettering,  .         .  XI.IV. 

U.  S.  Coast  Survey— Classification  and  Rules  for  Lettering.       .         .  XI.V. 

U.  S.  Coast  Survey — Classification  and  Rules  for  Lettering,   .         .  XI.VI. 

U.  S.  Coast    Survey— Relative   Appearance   in    Different        .         .  XI.VII. 

Character XLVIII. 


U.  S.  Coast  Survry— Title— Alaska 

U.   S.    Coast   Survey— Map   of  Entrance   to   New   York 

Harbor 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey — Standards  of  Lettering, 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey — Miscellaneous 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey — Map— Elk  Mountains,  Col.,   . 
Mississippi  River  Commission — Title,  .         .          .          , 

Mississippi  River  Commission — Topographical  Map, 

of  Engineers  U.  S.  A. — Title — Lake  Superior,   . 
Trinity  Church  I'l.m,    ....... 

Memorial  Tablet, 

Specimens  of  Type 

Specimens  of  Type, 

Specimens  of  Type, 

Specimens  of  Type,  ........ 

Specimen*  of  Type, 

Title  in  Roman  Old  Style  Type 

Titles  in  Gothic  Type, 

Explanatory  N  


PLAIN    LETTERING. 


CHAP.  I.    THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LETTERS. 


ART.  i.     THE   ELEMENTS  OF  LETTERS. 

All  letters  are  composed  either  of  straight  lines  or  curves, 
or  of  a  combination  of  both.  Since  letters  ought  to  be 
pleasing  to  the  eye,  the  curves  should  be  lines  of  beauty. 
In  nature,  curves  are  of  continuously  varying  curvature, 
the  different  forms  of  spirals  constituting  a  prominent  class. 
Many  of  the  curves  of  letters  must,  however,  be  symmet- 
rical with  reference  to  an  axis,  and  must  either  close  or  be 
tangent  to  parallel  lines,  and  the  simplest  curve  of  varying 
curvature  which  will  meet  this  requirement  is  the  ellipse. 
The  letter  S,  which  in  its  elementary  forms  has  been  called 
the  line  of  beauty,  may  be  considered  as  a  combination 
(•I"  .1  sinusoid  with  ellipses,  or  even  of  two  or  more  ellipses 
tangent  to  each  other. 

Theoretically,  then,  the  forms  of  letters  which  are  perfect 


from  an  artistic  point  of  view  are  composed  of  right  lines  in 
combination  with  plane  curves  of  the  second  or  higher 
orders,  but  practically  it  is  desirable  to  substitute,  within 
reasonable  limits,  one  or  more  arcs  of  circles  for  an  ellipse 
to  facilitate  the  construction  by  means  of  dividers.  When 
the  letters  are  small  a  single  circle  may  well  replaci-  an 
ellipse  in  case  its  axes  are  nearly  of  the  same  length.  While 
drawing  the  freehand  curves,  however,  it  is  well  to  bear  in 
mind  the  artistic  value  of  variable  curvature. 

Every  student  .and  draftsman  is  supposed  to  have  had 
some  practice  in  freehand  drawing  before  he  takes  up  the 
subject  of  lettering,  so  that  his  eye  has  been  trained  to  de- 
tect irregularities  in  curvature,  and  his  hand  to  have  such 
steadiness  in  drawing  a  line  that  he  can  readily  secure  the 
desired  result. 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LETTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 


ART.   2.     GENERAL   PROPORTION. 

in  order  to  show  the  relative  influence  of  the  elements 
which  determine  the  proportion  of  a  letter,  let  the  modern 
Roman  capital  H  be  taken,  which  consists  of  two  vertical 
body  strokes  or'stems,  united  by  a  horizontal  light  line,  the 
stems  being  surmounted  by  caps  and  resting  upon  bases. 
Both  caps  and  bases  are  technically  called  serifs. 

The  middle  letters  of  the  four  lines  in  Fig.  i  are  exactly 
the  same  in  every  respect.  In  the  first  line  the  letters  are  of 
the  same  width,  the  stems  are  one-fifth  as  wide  as  the  let- 
ters, and  the  heights  are  respectively  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8  times 
the  width  of  the  stems.  In  the  second  line  the  centers  of 
the  stems  are  the  same  distance  apart  as  before,  and  the 
height  is  the  same  throughout,  while  the  stems  vary  in 
width  as  i^,  \%,  \,  J/%  and  ^.  If  the  exterior  width  of 
these  letters  remained  the  same,  the  difference  in  effect 
would  be  comparatively  slight  for  the  two  left-hand  letters, 
and  would  not  be  noticed  at  all  in  the  right-hand  ones. 
Unless  otherwise  stated,  the  width  of  a  letter  is  to  be  exclu- 
sive of  its  serifs.  In  the  third  line  the  width  and  height  are 
uniform,  and  the  widths  of  the  stems  are  respectively  YI, 
%,  ys,  l/6  and  y7  of  the  width  of  the  letters.  The  width  of 
the  inclosed  space  here  varies  as  i,  2,  3,  4  and  5.  In  the 


fourth  line  the  letters  have  exactly  the  same  proportions  as 
in  the  first,  but  are  reduced  to  a  uniform  height. 
The  differences  between  the  corresponding  stems  in  the 


HHHH 
HHHHH 

HHHHH 

Fig.  I. 

second,  third  and  fourth  lines  are  not  perceptible  except  in 
the  case  of  the  left-hand  letter  of  the  third  line,  which  is 
about  ten  per  cent  heavier  than  either  the  one  above  or 


ART. 


GENKRAL    PROPORTION. 


bel<>w   it.    which   difference    becomes   apparent,    however. 
Drily  when  the  letters  .in-  drawn  to  .1  larger  scale. 

A  CDinp.irisoti  of  the  second,  third  :md  fourth  lines  shows 
that  the  relative  width  of  the  inclosed  spate  li.is  .1  consider- 
able inlluence  on  the  appearance  of  the  letter,  and  that  only 
comparatively  slight  changes  can  he  made  in  the  width  of 
stem  without  requiring  a  corresponding  modification  of  the 
exterior  width  of  the  letter.  This  is  true  in  a  greater  degree 
when  increasing  than  when  decreasing  the  width  of  stem. 
In  general  it  may  be  said,  that  in  letters  of  the  same  height 
the  width  of  stem  varies  direct! v  as  the  width  of  letter.  It 
is  seen,  therelore.  that  the  width  of  stem  depends  chiefly 
on  the  width  of  the  letter,  although  it  has  been  customary 
to  Mate  the  width  of  stem  in  terms  of  the  height  only. 

From  the  above  illustration  it  is  concluded  that  the  letters 
may  be  most  conveniently  proportioned  and  constructed  by 
means  of  a  scale  whose  unit  is  the  width  of  stem.  The 
width  of  any  given  letter  may  thus  be  expressed  by  a  num- 
ber which  shall  be  constant  for  the  same  style,  irrespective 
of  its  actual  si/e.  In  determining  the  exterior  width,  due 
regard  is  to  be  paid  to  the  width  of  the  inclosed  space. 
The  height  may  aKo  be  conveniently  expressed  in  terms  of 
the  same  unit  of  measure,  although  this  is  not  absolutely 
In  case  it  is  desired  to  construct  lighter  or 


heavier  letters  than  what  may  be  termed  the  standard,  the 
scale  may  remain  unchanged,  while  the  stems  are  made  less 
or  more  than  one  unit  wide. 

The  general  proportion,  accordingly,  depends  upon  four 
elements:  first,  the  height;  second,  the  width,  including  its 
extreme  width  as  well  as  that  of  its  main  bodv:  third,  the 
weight  or  width  of  its  parts;  fourth,  the  inclosed  space. 
The  best  effect  is  produced  when  these  elements  are  so  har- 
monized that  no  one  shall  appear  to  predominate.  In  Fig.  I 
those  on  the  left  of  the  middle  series  may  be  called  he. ivy 
while  those  on  the  right  are  light.  In  the  fourth  line  the 
two  letters  at  the  left  are  known  as  extended,  and  the  two 
on  the  right  as  condensed  letters,  the  middle  letter  having 
what  might  be  called  the  normal  proportion. 

The  height  may  range  from  3  to  10  or  12  units,  and  the 
width  of  stem  from  \l/t  to  ',2  unit  or  less.  These  limits 
should  rarely,  if  ever,  be  exceeded  on  drawings,  although 
type  forms  extending  far  beyond  them  are  in  general  use. 
Methods  of  varying  the  general  proportions,  and  their  appli- 
cation, will  be  illustrated  in  subsequent  articles. 

ART.    j.      RELATIVK   PROPORTION. 
In  order  that  a  given  number  of  words  may  have  the 
maximum  legibility,  it  is  necessary  that  all  the  letters  have 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LETTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 


simple  forms,  but  shall  be  readily  distinguished  from  one 
another,  and  that  the  general  appearance  of  the  combined 
form  and  arrangement  of  the  letters  and  words  shall  be  as 
uniform  as  possible.  This  general  uniformity  implies  uni- 
formity of  the  same  degree  in  every  word,  or,  no  letter 
should  appear  more  prominent  than  another,  and  thus  at- 
tract undue  attention  to  itself  when  the  word  is  observed  in 
the  process  of  reading.  Legibility  depends  upon  the  spacing 
as  well  as  the  forms  of  letters,  but  only  the  latter  will  be 
considered  in  this  chapter. 

The  characteristic  features  of  the  principal  styles  of  letters 
like  those  of  the  Roman  and  Gothic  alphabets  have  been  es- 
tablished by  usage.  The  proportions  of  the  letters,  how- 
ever, are  not  absolutely  fixed,  but  are  varied  within  certain 
limits,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  designer.  It  is  desirable, 
therefore,  that  within  these  limits  such  proportions  should 
be  adopted  as  still  further  to  promote  legibility,  and  at  the 
same  time,  if  possible,  to  secure  convenience  of  construction. 

The  different  letters  of  the  alphabet  must  be  given  such 
relative  dimensions  that  their  actual  heights,  widths,  areas 
of  inclosed  spaces,  and  weights  of  parts  shall  be  combined 
to  produce  the  uniform  effect  above  mentioned.  The  im- 
portance of  this  statement  may,  perhaps,  be  emphasized  by  . 
a  reference  to  Fig.  2.  The  horizontal  hair-lines  on  H  and  E 


are  placed  at  mid-height,  and  yet  they  appear  to  be  a  trifle 
below  the  middle.  •  The  upper  arid  lower  spurs  on  the  right 
side  of  E  are  of  exactly  the  same  size,  but  the  upper  one 

RED  ON 

Fig.  2. 

looks  to  be  slightly  larger  than  the  lower.  The  width  of  E 
is  the  same  at  the  top  as  at  the  bottom,  but  appears  to  be 
just  a  little  wider  at  the  top.  The  height  of  O  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  other  letters,  but  it  seems  to  be  less.  The 
widths  of  H,  D  and  O  at  the  middle  are  equal,  but  their 
apparent  widths  decrease  in  the  same  order.  N  has  the 
same  width  as  H,  but  it  seems  to  be  spread  out  too  much 
in  comparison.  The  middle  of  the  curved  stem  of  the  O 
and  the  widest  part  of  each  spur  of  E  appears  to  be  nar- 
rower than  the  stem  of  H,  although  the  measured  width  is 
the  same. 

It  is  seen  from  these  illustrations  that  optical  reasons  ma- 
terially affect  the  design  of  letters.  Let  the  student  cultivate 
the  habit  of  noticing  the  relative  proportion  of  letters  dis- 
played on  signs  and  posters  as  well  as  on  drawings. 


ART.  4. 


ROMAN    CAPITALS. 


ART.   4.       ROMAN  CAPITALS. 

The  modern  form  of  the  Rom.m  capitals  will  be  used  to 
illustrate  the  analysis  of  those  relative  proportions  which, 
with  but  slight  modification,  may  be  applied  to  nearly  all  of 
the  simpler  and  more  useful  styles  of  letters.  This  form  is 
more  frequently  employed  by  draftsmen,  and  hence  more 
familiar  than  the  old  stvle,  from  which  it  dillers  chiefly  in 
having  a  greater  disparity  in  the  weight  of  its  heavy  and 
light  lines,  and  to  some  extent,  also,  in  the  details  of  the 
serifs.  The  modern  form  is  the  result  of  modifications 
mainly  introduced  in  the  eighteenth  century  by  some  En- 
gli>h  type-founders. 

In  the  following  analysis  the  alphabet  will  be  divided  into 
three  groups :  the  rectangular,  diagonal  and  curved  letters. 
There  are  comparatively  few  parts  requiring  vertical  meas- 
urements, and  these  can  readily  be  drawn  by  means  of 
three  horizontal  guide  lines  in  addition  to  the  two  which 
limit  the  height  of  the  letters.  One  of  these  intermediate 
lines  is  placed  at  mid-height,  and  the  other  two  at  one- 
third  and  at  two-thirds  of  the  height,  respectively. 

RECTANGULAR  LETTERS. 

The  letter  H  (Fig.  ))  is  taken  as  the  standard  of  compari- 
son for  the  whole  alphabet.  Using  the  width  of  the  stem 


as  the  unit  of  measure,  the  width  will  be  taken  at  five  and 
the  height  at  six  units,  the  same  proportion  as  that  given 
for  the  middle  letter  of  each  line  in  Fig.  i.  The  two  verti- 

Si 


cal  stems  are  joined  by  a  horizontal  light  line,  which  for 
optical  reasons  must  be  placed  just  a  little  above  the  mid- 
height.  The  hair-lines  of  the  serifs  project  three-quarters  oi 
a  unit  beyond  the  edges  of  the  stems  at  the  bottom,  and 
about  one-eighth  unit  less  at  the  top.  If  both  were  made 
exactly  the  same  length,  the  caps  would  appear  longer  than 
the  bases.  Of  course  if  the  letters  are  small,  no  difference 
in  the  serifs  need  be  attempted.  The  serifs  are  completed 
by  connecting  the  hair-lines  to  the  stems  by  means  of  small 
curves  which  correspond  to  the  apophyge  of  a  column. 
The  curves  are  sometimes  omitted  in  very  small  letters,  but 
not  without  detracting  from  their  appearance. 

The  letter  I  corresponds  to  one  stem  of  H  in  every  re- 
spect. 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LETTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 


E  consists  of  a  vertical  stem,  three  horizontal  light  lines 
and  three  hooks  or  spurs.  As  the  right  side  of  the  letter  is 
not  as  heavy  in  appearance,  it  would  be  made  somewhat 
narrower  than  H  if  the  central  spur  were  omitted;  but  as 
the  latter  reduces  the  interior  space,  the  width  of  the  lower 
part  will  be  made  the  same  as  for  H  or  =,.  For  optical 
reasons  the  upper  width  is  reduced  to  4^.  The  inter- 
mediate line  occupies  the  same  position  as  in  H,  and  the 
right  side  of  the  central  spur  is  half-way  between  the  right 
side  of  the  stem  and  the  lower  spur,  or  two  units  from  the 
stem.  The  ends  of  the  spurs  are  located  just  a  little  above 
the  guide  lines,  thus  making  the  upper  one  smaller  than  the 
lower,  as  it  should  be.  The  inner  edges  of  the  spurs  are 
smooth  curves,  usually  drawn  freehand.  The  upper  spur  is 
made  one  unit  wide,  the  lower  one  i>6  units,  and  the 
central  spur  ^  unit.  The  serifs  have  curves  only  on  the 
left  of  the  stem. 

F  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  corresponding  part  of  E. 

L  has  the  same  form  as  the  corresponding  part  of  E.  but 
having  no  central  spur  it  is  made  a  half  unit  narrower, 
making  the  width  4/2. 

T  has  a  central  stem  with  a  horizontal  light  line  resting 
upon  it  and  a  spur  attached  to  each  end  of  the  latter.  The 


spurs  are  of  the  same  size  as  the  upper  one  on  E.     The 
width  is  ^/2,  or  as  much  wider  than  H  as  L  was  narrower. 

DIAGONAL  LETTERS. 

N  has  two  vertical  light  lines  united  by  a  diagonal  stem 
of  unit  width.  As  the  sides  are  lighter  than  in  H,  its  width 
is  reduced  to  4^2.  The  upper  extremity  of  the  stem  ex- 
tends a  little  to  the  left  of  the  light  line,  so  as  to  be  tangent 

5  8 


Fig.  4- 

to  the  curve  of  the  serif,  while  its  lower  extremity  is  pointed 
and  must  extend  a  little  below  the  guide  line  in  order  that 
the  right  side  of  the  letter  may  appear  to  have  the  same 
depth  as  the  left.  All  other  letters  having  such  points  must 
be  similarly  treated.  The  serifs  attached  to  the  hair-lines 
are  larger  than  when  connected  with  stems,  in  order  to 
balance  the  letter.  The  projection  on  each  side  of  the  limb 
is  J/&  for  the  upper  and  one  unit  for  the  lower  serif. 
In  A  an  inclined  hair-line  is  joined  to  an  inclined  stem, 


ART.  4. 


ROMAN    CAPITALS. 


- 


forming  .1  pointed  top,  which  extends  .1  little  beyond  the 
upper  guide  liiu1.  The  width  is  ••*%.  being  me.isured  from 
ttu-  points  wlu-ri-  the  inclined  outer  edges  of  the  letter  inter- 
sect the  lo\\i  r  guide  line  when  produced.  In  order  that  the 
:des  m.iy  .ippear  to  have  the  s. line  inclination,  the  apex 
must  be  moved  just  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  center  line,  so 
.is  in  increase  the  slope  of  the  line.  It  might  be  sufficient, 
in  letters  of  the  normal  proportion,  to  move  the  a| 
unit,  but.  in  order  to  use  the  same  value  fur  all  heights  and 
nvenieiice,  the  horixoiital  component  of  the  light  line 
is  made  J1.-.  while  that  of  the  outer  edge  of  the  stem  is  ;. 
The  two  xid.-s  are  united  by  a  hori/ontal  line  placed  just  a 
little  above  the  >i  guide  line.  Where  the  hair-line  of  the 
serif  makes  an  acute  angle  with  a  stem  or  light  line,  its  pro- 
jection is  increased  ,'s.  and  on  the  obtuse  angle  it  is  dimin- 
ished the  same  amount. 

V  may  be  regarded  as  an  A  without  the  horizontal  line, 
alter  rotation  through  an  angle  of  is<»  degrees.  As  the 
width  is  now  measured  at  the  top  instead  of  at  the  bottom, 
as  betore  rotation,  it  will  be  diminished  a  quarter  unit,  and 
also  .in  additional  quarter  unit  because  V  contains  no  hori- 
zontal hair-line.  The  width  is  thus  reduced  to  =,.  The 
horizontal  component  of  the  inclined  light  line  is  2#. 

M  is  formed  lio::i  V  by  adding  u  vertical  light  line  at  tin- 


left  and  a  vertical  stem  at  the  right.  The  width  is  therefore 
increased  to  <>.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  vertex  of  the 
V  is  not  midway  between  the  vertical  sides,  but  one-quar- 
ter unit  to  the  right  of  this  position. 

W  consists  of  two  V's,  but  in  order  to  avoid  an  excessive 
width,  each  V  is  contracted  a  half  unit.  The  upper  part  of 
the  second  stem,  which  lies  on  the  left  of  the  light  line,  is 
preferably  omitted.  The  width  at  the  top  is  8  and  at  the 
bottom  1%.  The  horizontal  component  of  each  hair-line 
is  2. 

In  X  the  light  line  and  stem  cross  each  other  near  the 
middle.  The  left  extremities  of  the  stem  and  light  line  lie 
in  the  same  vertical.  The  width  at  the  top  is  s  and  at  the 
bottom  5J4.  Where  the  sides  are  inclined  instead  of  verti- 
cal, as  in  H,  the  difference  between  the  upper  and  lower 

5  5*  5 


Fig.  s- 


widths  must  be  about  twice  as  great,  in  order  to  produce 
the  same  apparent  effect.     It  will  be  observed  that  the  hori- 


8 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LETTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 


zontal  component  of  the  light  line  is  a  half  unit  less  than 
that  of  the  stem,  which  meets  the  condition  imposed  by  the 
optical  effect  as  noted  in  the  case  of  A. 

The  upper  part  of  Y  is  similar  to  that  of  X,  but  has 
slightly  different  dimensions  to  facilitate  construction.  Its 
lower  part  is  the  same  as  that  of  I.  The  width  of  the  top  is 
about  5X-  The  light  line  meets  the  stems  just  a  little 
above  the  middle  guide  line,  and  its  horizontal  component 
is  2. 

In  K  the  diagonal  light  line  meets  the  vertical  stem  near 
the  YT,  guide  line.  The  width  of  the  letter  is  5  at  the  top 
and  5^  at  the  bottom.  The  outer  edge  of  the  inclined 
stem  bisects  the  light  line,  and  hence  meets  it  near  the  "*/>, 
guide  line.  This  letter  may  also  be  regarded  as  derived 
from  X. 

Z  is  an  exceptional  letter  in  some  respects,  but  may  be 
considered  as  a  reversed  S  (see  Fig.  7),  with  angles  substi- 
tuted for  the  curves.  The  width  is  4>£  at  the  top  and  5  at 
the  bottom.  The  spurs  are  the  same  size  as  in  E.  The 
right  extremity  of  the  stem  is  in  the  same  vertical  as  the 
edge  of  the  lower  spur.  The  stem  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
X,  but  is  reversed  in  direction.  It  is  the  only  diagonal 
stem  which  slopes  downward  toward  the  left.  This  fact 
should  be  thoroughly  fixed  in  the  mind  of  every  student. 


CURVED  LETTERS. 

The  letter  Q_  differs  from  an  O  by  the  attachment  of  a 
short  limb  of  reversed  curvature.  The  outer  curve  of  the  O 
should  be  strictly  an  ellipse,  but  for  a  height  not  much  over 
an  inch  two  arcs  of  circles  joined  by  short  tangent  curves 
will  answer  the  purpose.  In  order  that  this  letter  may  ap- 
pear as  large  as  H  it  must  be  made  somewhat  wider.  A 
width  of  6  will  be  adopted.  The  centers  of  the  arcs  are 


shown  on  the  middle  vertical.  On  Plate  I  the  centers  are 
placed  on  the  middle  guide  line  and  the  arcs  joined  at  the 
top  and  bottom.  For  optical  reasons  the  letter  must  pro- 
ject a  little  beyond  the  upper  and  lower  guide  lines.  As 
the  sides  vary  in  thickness  they  should  be  a  little  wider  at 
the  center  than  a  stem  of  uniform  width — say  about  iya 
units.  The  interior  curve  is  elliptical,  but  by  practice  can 
readily  be  drawn  freehand.  The  vertical  tangents  to  the 


ART.  4. 


ROMAN    CAPITALS. 


curve  i.idlitate  its  construction.  The  light  part  :it  the  top 
;ind  bottom  should  be  about  2  units  long.  If  the  size  is 
small — say  less  than  fi  or  #  inch — the  letter  may  be  m.ule 
a  full  circle.  Tin-  appendage  of  the  Q,  extends  ^/t  units 
from  left  to  right  and  extends  %  unit  above  and  \Yt  units 
below  the  lower  guide  line.  Its  width  or  thickness  is  fa. 
The  one  on  Plate  I  has  a  thickness  of  one  unit  and  projects 
one  unit  below  the  guide  line.  It  would  be  improved  if  its 
thickness  were  reduced  to  y\.  The  form  in  Fig.  6  is  to  be 
preferred.  Sometimes  the  appendage  is  lowered  until  its 
upper  edge  is  tangent  to  the  body  of  the  letter. 

The  left  half  of  the  C  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  O.  The 
spur  is  the  same  sixe  as  that  on  E,  but  has  a  curve  on  its 
upper  side.  The  upper  width  of  the  letter  is  #  unit  less 
than  the  lower.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  right-hand  part 
of  the  lower  curve  has  a  smaller  radius  than  the  left. 

G  h.is  the  same  widths  as  C.  and  differs  from  it  only  in 
the  substitution  of  a  short  stem  for  the  corresponding  hair 
line.  This  stem  extends  upward  to  midway  between  the 
ft  and  %  guide  lines,  and  is  united  to  the  lower  light  line 
by  suitable  curves,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  On  Plate  I  it  is 
shown  .is  extending  only  a  little  above  the  ft  guide  line. 

I)  MI. iv  be  regarded  as  the  combination  of  E  without  its 
spurs  and  the  right  half  of  O.  The  width  is  *,%. 


U  consists  of  a  vertical  stem  and  a  light  line,  united  below 
by  means  of  a  semi-circular  curve  tangent  to  the  center  line 
of  the  stem,  and  into  which  the  stem  tapers  by  tangent 
curves  drawn  freehand.  The  right  hand  serif  has  the  same 
sixe  and  form  as  the  corresponding  one  on  N.  The  width  is 
4%,  or  the  same  as  N  and  L 

J  is  like  a  part  of  U  reversed,  the  lower  line  being  con- 
structed in  a  similar  way.  Its  left  end  is  tangent  to  a  cir- 
cular bulb,  whose  diameter  is  a  little  larger  than  unity,  and 
which  extends  just  a  little  above  the  ft  guide  line.  The 
width  of  the  letter  is  4. 


-* 


B  may  be  derived  from  E  by  substituting  for  its  three 
spurs  two  curved  tapering  stems  tangent  to  its  horizontal 
light  lines.  The  inner  edges  are  circles  and  the  outer  edges 
elliptical  curves.  If  the  center  lines  are  circular  the  letters 
will  appear  too  full  at  the  middle,  where  the  two  curved 
stems  are  tangent  to  each  other. 


10 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LETTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 


The  widths  of  B  are  4^  nnd  5,  or  the  same  as  those  of  E. 

R  differs  from  B  in  replacing  the  lower  curved  stem  by  a 
stem  of  reversed  curvature.  The  center  of  gravity  of  the 
two  curved  stems  should  be  in  the  same  vertical,  and  there- 
fore the  lower  one  should  be  tangent  to  the  middle  hair  line 
a  little  farther  to  the  left  than  the  upper  one,  and  it  should 
taper  into  a  light  line  at  the  bottom  approximately  in  a  ver- 
tical tangent  to  the  upper  curved  stem.  The  width  at  the 
bottom  is  6.  On  Plate  I  the  form  is  given  when  the  width 
is  reduced  to  *>%. 

P  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  corresponding  parts  of  B 
and  R. 

S  is  made  4^  wide  at  the  upper  part  and  5  at  the  lower. 
In  constructing  this  letter,  first  draw  the  vertical  sides  of  the 
spurs,  then  draw  the  upper  and  lower  light  lines,  the  short 
curves  to  complete  the  spurs,  and  finally  the  tapering  curved 
stem.  The  upper  portion  of  the  stem  should  appear  to  be 
tangent  to  the  vertical  through  the  left  side  of  the  lower 
spur,  and  for  optical  reasons  the  curve  ought  to  extend  a 
little  beyond  this  vertical.  Such  a  position  should  be  taken 
by  the  draftsman  that  the  general  direction  of  each  prin- 
cipal portion  of  such  curves  may  be  drawn  toward  himself. 

The  symbol  &  has  a  width  of  2^/2  at  the  top  and  6  at  the 
bottom.  The  vertical  tangents  on  the  left  of  the  upper  and 


lower  parts  of  this  symbol  are  one  unit  apart.  The  foot  ex- 
tends a  little  higher  than  the  middle  guide  line.  The  aux- 
iliary construction  lines  and  centers  of  the  circular  arcs  are 
shown  in  the  figure. 

ART.  V.    GENERAL    DETAILS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  general  details  given 
in  the  preceding  article  and  arranged  in  order  for  convenient 
reference.  They  should  be  committed  to  memory  by  the 
student. 

1.  (All  letters  having  distinct  upper  and  lower  parts  re- 
quire the  upper  to  be  somewhat  smaller  in  sixe  than  the 
lower  one)    (The  upper  width  of  the  letter  is  to  be  less  than 
the  lower,  the  contraction  being  made  only  on  the  right 
side,  except  in  the  cases  of  Z,  where  it  is  made  on  the  left 
side,  and  of  &,  where  it  is  made  on  both  sides.")    The  heighi 
of  the  upper  spurs  is  to  be  a  little  less  and  that  of  the  lower 
a  little  greater  than  one-third  of  the  height  of  the  letter. 

2.  Curved   tops   or  bottoms   of   letters   should   extend 
slightly  beyond  the  upper  and  lower  guide  lines.     Pointed 
parts  must  likewise  be  extended. 

j).  Intermediate  horizontal  light  lines  are  placed  a  little 
above  mid-height  in  all  cases  except  in  A,  where  it  is  simi- 
larly placed  with  respect  to  the  >i  guide  line. 


ART.  >. 


».l  NHRAI.    DHTAILS    OF    CONSTRUCTION. 


ii 


4      All  di.iyotial  steins  slope  downward  toward  the  right, 
evept  th.it  di  /. 

•-.     When  tlu-  end  oi  .1  diagonal  light  line  joins  th;it  of  a 
•i.il  stein,  tin  the  lii;ht   line   must  be  a   little 

steeper  th;ill  th;it  of  the  stem. 

').     Curved  stems  continuously  varying  in  width  must  be 
ider  at  tile  middle  than  those  of  uniform  width. 

The  thickness  of  the  light  lines  should  generally  not 
be  less  than  one  eighth  of  the  Mem.  While  this  is  the  cus- 
tom, ii  v  thickness,  it  would  be  better  to  increase  it  to  one- 
sixth,  and.  in  verv  small  letMs.  to  one-fourth  of  the  stem. 
The  light  lines  should  always  be  distinct  and  clear,  as  the 
individuality  of  letters  depends  upon  it  to  some  extent. 

The  projection^,  oi  all  the  serifs  beyond  the  lines  to  which 
thev  .ire  attached  are  given   in  <  »n    I'late  I,    the 


I\ 

*  *       I  * 


nil 


II 


fif.  8  Fig.  9. 

curves  are  made  smaller  than  in  Figs.  ;  to  7.     The  effect  of 
small  curves  may  be  seen  on  plate  IX,  while  that  of  larger 


curves  is  shown  on  plates  XIV  and  XV.     Let  the  student 

construct  the  letters  of  the  same  word  in  two  lines,  making 
the  serif  curves  in  one  line  small  and  in  the  other  large,  and 
carefully  observe  the  difference  between  the  general  expres- 
sion of  the  two  words. 

I  he  extreme  forms  of  the  serifs  are  given  in  Fig.  q,  those 
on  the  left  hand  I  projecting  more  than  a  unit,  while  those 
on  the  other  I  are  very  short,  the  curves  in  both  cases  being 
small.  The  former  is  known  as  the  French  and  the  latter  as 
the  HIzevir,  while  the  serifs  in  Fig.  8  are  of  the  Scotch  style. 

In  addition  to  avoiding  small  curves  at  the  serifs,  the  stu- 
dent is  also  cautioned  against  making  the  light  lines  loo  thin 
and  against  shortening  the  tapering  portions  of  the  curved 
limbs. 

The  Roman  capitals,  whose  construction  was  described 
in  the  preceding  article,  should  first  be  drawn  in  pencil  with 
such  care  and  precision  that  the  process  of  inking  will  con- 
sist merely  in  following  the  pencil  lines.  Until  a  drafts- 
man has,  by  patient  practice,  secured  such  a  firm  control  of 
his  hand  as  to  make  smooth  curves  of  uniform  width  of  line 
with  precision,  he  should  not  attempt  to  correct  and  com- 
plete outlines  with  the  pen  which  were  defectively  sketched 
with  the  pencil. 

If  the  construction  is  made  on  plain  paper  the  hori/ontal 


12 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LETTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 


guide  lines  should  be  drawn  lightly  with  a  finely-pointed 
pencil  and  the  widths  may  be  conveniently  laid  off  by  the 
aid  of  a  small  paper  scale  about  10  units  long,  with  one  unit 
on  the  left  of  the  zeropoint  divided  into  quarters. 

After  constructing  the  letters  to  a  large  scale  like  that 
shown  on  Plate  I  they  may  then  be  drawn  to  about  one-half 
of  that  scale.  When  the  letters  are  quite  small  some 
features  must  be  proportionately  exaggerated,  such  as  ex- 
tending the  curves  and  pointed  stems  beyond  the  guide  lines, 
and  enlarging  the  curves  at  the  caps  and  bases. 

By  carefully  comparing  the  widths  of  the  letters  which 
are  shown  on  Plate  I  in  alphabetical  order,  and  observing 
the  reasons  given  in  the  preceding  article  for  the  differences 
in  width,  they  will  more  easily  be  fixed  in  the  memory. 

In  inking  letters  the  following  order  of  procedure  should 
be  observed :  First,  draw  the  arcs  of  circles ;  second,  the 
straight  lines,  including  light  lines  and  edges  of  stems ;  and 
third,  the  freehand  curves.  The  arcs  of  circles  should  be 
drawn  before  the  right  lines,  to  some  of  which  they  are 
tangent,  as  it  is  a  well-known  rule  in  drawing  that  all  curves 
constructed  by  dividers  should  precede  their  tangents.  After 
the  outlines  are  completed  the  letters  may  be  filled  in  with  a 
pen,  but  this  should  not  be  done  until  all  the  pencil  lines 
have  been  erased  and  the  drawing  cleaned.  In  this  way  the 


heavy  black  lines  of  the  letters  will  remain  unimpaired, 
which  if  subjected  to  the  eraser  would  assume  a  grayish  ap- 
pearance. 

A  set  of  the  finished  capitals  is  shown  on  Plate  IV,  the 
scale  being  one-half  of  that  used  in  Plate  I,  the  height  in- 
creased to  seven  units  and  the  stems  reduced  to  J&  unit. 

ART.  VI.     ROMAN  SMALL. 

The  small  letters,  which  ;ire  called  lower-case  letters  by 
printers,  are  divided  into  three  groups:  first,  those  whose 
height  is  the  same  as  those  of  the  capitals  and  limited  by  the 
same  extreme  guide  lines,  b,  d,  f,  h,  k  and  1;  second,  those 
whose  height  is  the  same  as  the  preceding,  but  which  pro- 
ject below  the  lower  guide  line,  g,  j,  p,  q  and  y;  and  third, 
those  whose  height  corresponds  to  that  of  the  main  body  of 
the  preceding  groups,  a,  c,  e,  i,  m,  n,  o,  r,  s,  u,  v,  w,  xandz 
(see  Plate  II).  These  three  classes  are  sometimes  designate  1 
as  ascending,  descending  and  short  letters,  respectively. 
The  first  thing  to  determine,  therefore,  is  the  ratio  of  the 
height  of  the  short  letters  to  that  of  the  others,  or  of  the 
capitals.  This  ratio  has  sometimes  been  taken  as  one-half, 
but  more  frequently  as  two-thirds.  J.  ENTHOFFF.R,  in  his 
Manual  of  Topography,  employs  what  is  called  the  "golden 
cut,"  taken  from  the  theory  of  the  proportions  of  the  human 


ART.  6. 


ROMAN    SMALL. 


body,  developed  bv  Professor  Dr.  A.  Zeising,  in  a  work 
published  in  IN=..|.  The  golden  cut  ol  am  line  is  such  a 
division  that  the  lessei  segment  is  to  the  gi  eater  segment  as 
the  greater  segment  is  to  the  whole.  If/  den.  pies  the  length 
of  a  line  and  x  its  larger  segment,  this  relation  is  ex- 
pressed bv 

l-x  :  x  =  x  :  I, 

the  solution  of  which  gives  .v     <>.<n8/.     In  the  reduction  nt 
the  equation  .v+}£/=  v'l.as/*  was  obtained,   and  which    in- 
dicates  a  convenient  graphic  method  lor  finding  x.     In  Fig. 
n>  lay  off  al>  equal  to  /.  and  </<•  perpendicular 
to  ab  and  equal  to  }£/.      With  c  as  a  center, 
describe  the  arc  <;./.  and  with  b  as  a   center. 
describe  the  arc  tie,   then  be  is  equal  to  x,  or 
"i.S  per  cent  of  ab. 

The  thickness  of  the  stems  of  all  the  small 
letters  for  the  normal  or  standard  proportion  is 
k'i\en  the  same  relation  as  that  used  f<  r  the 
Capitals,  and  therefore  it  will  be  61.8  per  cent  of  that  of  the 
capitals.  Practically,  it  will  be  near  enough  to  take  0.6  as 
the  ratio.  This  thickness  of  stem  will  be  adopted  as  the 
unit  in  proportioning  the  small  letters. 

In  Fig.  1 1  the  word  Armor  Plate  is  drawn  with  the  height 
of  its  short  letters  equal  to  one-half,  six-tenths,  and  two- 


Fig.  10. 


thirds,  respectively,  of  the  height  of  the  capitals,  as  an  illus- 
tration of  the  effect  due  to  this  relation  alone. 

It  is  evidently  very  desirable  that  as  little  difference  should 


A 


rmor 


Plate 
Armor  Plate 
Armor  Plate 

Fig.  ii. 

be  made  between  the  proportions  of  the  small  letters  and 
the  corresponding  capitals  as  is  allowable  on  account  of 
change  in  form. 

Six  guide  lines  are  required  for  small  letters.  The  lines  a 
and  e  in  Fig.  12  are  the  top  and  bottom  guide  lines  of  the  cap- 
itals. The  line  b  is  drawn  so  that  be  equals  six-tenths  of  ae, 
and  ef\&  made  equal  to  ab.  Lines  d  and  c  are  at  one-fourth 
and  three-fourths  of  the  height  be  respectively.  The  round 
letters  will  need  an  additional  guide  line  midway  between 
the  lines  c  and  </. 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LETTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 


As  many  of  the  small  letters  have  the  same  form  as  the 
corresponding  capitals,  only  those  details  will  be  referred  to 
in  the  following  description  which  are  different. 


b- 

c  — 

d--- 
e  — 

f  — 


Fig.  11. 

All  curves  tangent  to  vertical  stems  will  meet  them  at  or 
near  the  guide  lines  c  and  d,  marked  %  and  24  on  P'ate  "• 
The  form  of  these  curves  should  be  elliptical.  For  the  sizes 
most  frequently  employed  they  are  drawn  freehand,  hut  for 
larger  ones  a  circular  curve  may  conveniently  be  constructed 
either  to  replace  an  elliptical  hair  line  or  an  edge  of  a  stem, 
or  to  serve  as  a  guide  line  for  the  freehand  curves. 

The  letter  h  is  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  series,  similarly 
to  the  capital,  its  width  being  5.  The  edges  of  the  curved 
stem  are  to  be  tangent  to  the  circular  hair  line,  which  in  turn 
is  tangent  to  the  edge  of  the  long  stem,  and  also  when  pro- 
duced to  the  center  line  of  the  other  stem.  The  position 
of  the  center  of  this  arc  is  shown  on  the  plate  by  a  small 


circle.  Tne  serifs  have  the  same  relative  size  as  in  the 
capital  letters,  but  in  small-size  letters  their  projection  is 
often  increased  to  one  unit;  unless  the  scale  is  large,  how- 
ever, the  upper  serifs  are  made  of  the  same  size  as  the  lower. 

The  n  is  equal  to  a  portion  of  h;  m  becomes  a  double  n, 
and,  therefore,  has  a  width  of  9,  while  u  is  like  a  rotated  n, 
with  slight  modifications  in  its  serifs.  The  1  is  like  the  long 
stem  of  the  h,  and  j  is  equal  to  the  left  stem  of  the  n,  with 
the  addition  of  a  circular  dot,  whose  center  lies  one-third  of 
the  way  between  the  guide  lines  \2/$  and  i.  When  the 
scale  is  very  small,  however,  the  dot  is  sometimes  placed  on 
the  upper  guide  line.  The  j  may  be  obtained  from  the  i  by 
producing  its  stem  downward  and  tapering  it  into  a  curved 
hair  line,  which  is  tangent  to  a  bulb  whose  center  has  the 
same  relation  to  the  -*A  guide  line  as  the  dot  has  to  the 
^guideline.  The  outer  edge  of  the  stem  and  the  hair 
line  may  be  composed  of  two  tangent  quarter  circles,  whosLj 
radii  are  2>^  and  I  y*  respectively.  The  f  is  the  same  as  j 
after  rotation,  with  the  addition  of  another  lower  foot  and  of 
a  cross  line  on  the  guide  line  i.  The  width  of  j,  f  and  •: 
is  4. 

The  t  has  a  cross  line  like  the  t,  but  its  stem  extends  only 
half  way  from  this  cross  to  the  upper  guide  line,  and  is  cut 
off  obliquely,  while  the  lower  end  of  the  stem  is  tapered 


ART.  6. 


ROMAN  SMALL. 


off  into  ;i  curved  hair  litu-,   the  latter  being  a  semi-circle 
!. indent  In  the  outer  edge  "I  the  stein. 

The  y  is  .1  v.  with  its  hair  line  extended  downwaul  and 
curved  so  .is  to  be  undent  to  a  bulb  in  a  vertical  line  one 
unit  beyond  the  lelt  construction  line  for  the  upper  part  of 
the  letter,  and  whose  center  is  about  one-fourth  of  the  way 
between  guide  lines  '-'.!  and  <>. 

The  spur  ol  c  is  changed  to  a  bulb  tangent  to  the  curved 
hair  line.  The  e  is  derived  from  the  o  by  introducing  a  liori- 
xontal  hair  line  abo-it  one-third  of  the  way  fiom  the  %  to 
the  ;'+  guide  line  and  omitting  a  part  of  the  right-hand  stem. 
The  upper  part  is  contracted  a  little  so  as  not  to  be  wider 
than  the  lower  part.  The  letters  b,  d,  p  and  q  have  the 
same  width,  and  differ  but  slightly  in  composition.  They 
may  be  regarded  as  a  Combination  of  a  part  of  h  with  one- 
hall  of  the  o. 

No  small  letter  differs  from  its  capital  form  more  than  g. 
It  consists  of  an  o  about  live  units  wide,  lying  between  the 
guide  lines  ,'4  and  i.  united  to  a  curved  stem  resembling  the 
larger  portion  oi  an  S  whose  sides  extend  YI  unit  beyond  the 
upper  o.  A  small  projection,  consisting  of  a  bulb  and  a 
tangent  connecting  curve,  is  added  on  the  upper  right  of 
the  letter.  In  very  small  letters  this  projection  must  be  rel- 
atively exaggerated  in  prominence. 


The  a  has  a  bulb  like  the  c,  and  its  right-hand  stem  ter- 
minates below  like  the  t.  The  upper  curves  of  the  letter 
are  constructed  like  those  ol  the  h  or  n.  The  remaining  de- 
tails are  shown  on  the  drawing.  It  may  be  well  to  add  that 
the  upper  serifs  when  attached  to  vertical  stems  extend  only 
toward  the  left,  except  in  the  case  of  q.  where  the  curve 
on  that  side  prevents  it.  The  horizontal  cross  lines  off  and 
t  on  the  upper  guide  line  are  not  regarded  as  serifs.  The 
lower  serifs  attached  to  vertical  stems  project  on  both  sides 
unless  prevented  by  adjacent  curves,  as  in  u  and  d.  All 
serifs  on  diagonal  stems  or  hair  lines  extend  in  both  direc- 
tions. The  curved  boundaries  of  letters  should  pass  very 
slightly  bevond  the  horizontal  guide  lines. 

A  complete  set  of  the  finished  small  letters  in  alphabetical 
order  is  shown  on  Plate  IV,  the  scale  being  one-hall  of  that 
used  lor  the  same  letters  on  Plate  II.  The  stems  are  reduced 
to  a  width  of  fo  unit,  while  the  height  of  the  short  letters  is 
increased  to  7  units,  and  of  the  others  in  the  same  ratio. 

The  letters  a  and  t  are  the  only  ones  which  have  short  re- 
turn curves  at  the  base  and  if  these  curves  were  replaced  by 
serifs  it  would  not  only  simplify  the  construction  but  also 
the  spacing.  The  appearance  of  the  a  when  thus  modified 
may  be  seen  in  the  word  Meridians  on  Plate  XXI,  and  t  is 
shown  on  the  last  line  of  Plate  XIX,  but  in  a  lighter  weight. 


i6 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  LETTERS. 


CHAP,  I. 


Fig.  13. 


ART.  7.     ITALICS. 

The  heavy  and  light  lines  and  the  axes  of  the  entire  letter 
and  of  its  various  parts,  which 
are  vertical  in  the  Roman  let- 
ters, are  all  inclined  in  the 
Italic,  and  the  inclination  of 
the  sloping  lines  is  corres- 
pondingly modified,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  13.  The  intersection 
of  any  line  of  the  letter  with 
any  horizontal  guide  line  occupies  the  same  position  in  the 
parallelogram  as  it  did  in  the  rectangle. 

Mr.  Enthoffer  in  his  Manual  of  Topography  takes  the  hori- 
zontal component  af  in  Fig.  13,  equal  to  ae,  the  smaller 
segment  of  the  "golden  cut"  of  the  lineal.  This  makes 
the  angle  abf  equal  to  20°  54'.  This  angle  may,  however, 
be  varied  several  degrees  without  producing  a  noticeable 
effect.  If  ab  is  laid  off  equal  to  8  units  and  ac  equal  to  3 
units  the  angle  will  be  20°  33'.  On  account  of  convenience 
in  construction  this  value  will  be  adopted  instead  of  the  other. 

The  height  of  italic  letters  is  obtained  by  measuring  along 
the  slope  £/and  making  the  length  bg  equal  to  be,  while  the 
widths  are  laid  off  along  the  horizontal  guide  lines  as  before. 


This   arrangement   causes   italic   letters    to    appear  a  little 
more  slender  than  the  Roman. 

A  complete  set  of  the  italic  capitals  and  small  letters  is 
shown  on  Plate  IV,  the  dimensions  and  the  character  of  the 
details  being  exactly  the  same  as  for  the  Roman. 

The  horizontal  component  of  the  slope  may  be  reduced  to 
some  extent  without  detracting  from  the  general  effect. 
Nearly  all  of  the  italics  on  Plate  XXX  have  a  base  of  2% 
parts  to  a  height  of  8  parts,  or  an  angle  of  15°  43'  with  the 
vertical.  Alphabets  have  been  published  in  which  this  angle 
was  as  high  as  25°  and  in  one  instance  even  30°.  Let  the 
student  construct  the  same  word  four  times  in  succession 
and  give  to  their  letters  the  slopes  of  15%°,  20^°,  23°  and 
30°  respectively  and  carefully  compare  their  relative  appear- 
ance. 

ART.  8.     STUMP  WRITING. 

Stump  writing  consists  in  such  a  modification  of  the  italic 
small  letters  as  to  materially  facilitate  their  freehand  construc- 
tion. This  is  chiefly  accomplished  by  tapering  off  into  curves 
the  extremities  of  stems,  transforming  8  serifs  and  spurs  into 
bulbs,  and  omitting  1 1  serifs  altogether,  The  remaining 
variations  consist  in  more  radical  changes  in  the  form  of  let- 
ters, as  in  the  case  of  a,  g  and  z.  Slight  irregularities  in  the 


ARI 


STUMP    WRITING. 


'7 


construction  of  this  suit-  are  less  noticeable  and  the  general 
appearance  of  the  letters  i^  graceful. 

Tlu-  lower  curve. 1  extiemities  of  vertical  stems  extend  2% 
units  beyond  the  outer  edge  ol  the  Mem.  and  the  upper  serifs 
pr»ject  about  i  unit.  The  lower  width  ofk  is  increased  I 
unit  on  account  of  the  curve  attached  to  the  diagonal  limb  of 
'eversed  curvature.  The  upper  curve>  of  diagonal stems,  as 
in  v.  wand  y.  reach  about  i  ' j  units  beyond  the  point  where 
the  outer  edge  of  the  stem,  il  produced,  meets  their  upper 
guide  line.  The  width  of  v,  w  and  y  when  measured  be- 
tween the  points  where  their  diagonals  meet  this  guide  is 
the  vime  aN  lor  the  Italic  small,  but  as  the  bulbs  are  tangent 
to  the  diagonal  hair  lines  at  the  three-quarter  guide  line  the 
widt'is  of  these  letters  are  thereby  contracted  a  little  on  the 
light  side  when  finished. 

in  x  the  stem  is  made  vertical  with  curved  extremities  on 
both  sides.  The  extreme  widths  ate  increased  to  h  and  6ft. 
In  7.  the  diagonal  stem  is  changed  into  a  hair  line  and  the 
horizontal  hair  lines  combined  with  the  spurs  are  altered  into 
stems  of  reversed  curvature,  the  widths  being  increased  one- 
hall  unit. 

As  the  right  upper  portion  ol  e  is  rounded,  its  width  as 
well  as  that  of  the  lower  part  is  reduced  oiie-quaiter  unit. 
The  form  ol  a  is  made  equal  to  d  with  the  upper  end  of  its 


long  stem  removed,  and  g  is  derived  from  q  by  curving  its 
long  stem  toward  the  left  and  reducing  it  into  a  hair  line 
which  is  tangent  to  a  bulb.  The  lower  width  is  about  one- 
ha'f  unit  less  than  the  upper. 

When  constructed  freehand,  unless  the  size  is  very  small, 
it  is  best  not  to  attempt  to  make  the  heavy  strokes  with  one 
movement  of  the  pen  under  pressure  but  to  draw  the  edges 
of  the  stems  and  fill  them  in  afterwards.  This  method  se- 
cures greater  uniformity  in  the  thickness  of  the  stems  and 
also  better  curvature,  since  the  pen  when  held  lightly  for  the 
fine  lines  yields  more  readily  to  the  movement  of  the  hand. 

As  the  right-hand  limbs  of  h,  m  and  n  are  curved  at  their 
ends  in  opposite  directions  they  appear  to  have  a  slightly 
steeper  slope  than  the  adjacent  straight  stems,  although  their 
central  parts  are  truly  parallel.  When  these  letters  are 
drawn  freehand  many  draftsmen  find  a  tendency  to  give  the 
right-hand  stems  a  slope  which  is  actually  steeper,  and  there- 
fore need  to  guard  themselves  against  it. 

On  Plate  IV  the  letters  are  drawn  to  one-half  the  above 
scale,  filled  in  and  arranged  in  regular  order.  The  propor- 
tion is  slightly  different,  however,  the  height  being  7  and 
the  width  of  stem  ?*  unit.  The  capitals  to  be  used  i<i  stump 
writing  are  the  same  as  those  used  with  the  Italic  small. 

Alternate  forms  of  the  letters  v,   w  and  y  are  given  in 


18 

Fig.  14- 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  LETTERS. 


CHAP.    I. 


Fig.  14. 


These  are  easier  to  space  than  the  ones  given  on 
uie  plate,  as  they  avoid  diagonal  lines 
and  the  curved  extremities  on  the  left. 
Sometimes  the  curves  on  the  left  of 
v,  w  and  y,  as  drawn  on  Plate  II,  are 
replaced  by  serifs. 

ART.  9.      GOTHIC  CAPITALS. 

Gothic  is  an  American  term  applied  to  letters  whose  form 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  Roman,  but  whose  limbs  are  all  of 
uniform  width  and  without  serifs.  They  are  known  in 
England  as  grotesque  and  sans-serif.  Those  called  Gothic 
letters  in  England  and  on  the  Continent  are  black-faced, 
pointed  letters,  originated  in  the  hitter  part  of  the  twelfth 
century  and  improved  in  the  succeeding  century.  In  this 
country  they  are  usually  designated  as  black  letter,  or  church 

text. 

It  will  only  be  necessary  to  indicate  in  this  article  the  par- 
ticulars in  which  the  construction  of  the  Gothic  differs  from 
the  Roman  letters.  Being  composed  of  lines  of  uniform 
weight  throughout,  the  width  of  the  lines  should  be  less 
than  that  of  the  stems  or  heavy  limbs  of  the  Roman  or  else 
an  appearance  of  excessive  weight  will  be  produced.  In 
Fig.  15  the  same  word  is  shown  in  Roman  and  in  Gothic 


yi    ED  ^    I—I 

**  '          ^ 


letters,  the  latter  being  YZ  and   i   unit  thick  respectively. 

The  upper  word  appears  a  little  lighter  and  the  tower  one 

decidedly  heavier  than  the  Roman. 

A[""^  ^"N  I  I  Gothic  letters  with  a  thickness  of 
l\  V-X  I  I  about  YS  would  have  about  the  same 
weight  as  the  Roman  whose  stem? 
are  one  unit  wide. 

Those  shown  on  Plate  III  have  lines 
which  are  half  a  unit  wide.  In  order 
to  preserve  the  same  apparent  pro- 
portions the  widths  of  all  the  Roman 
capitals  having  an  exterior  light  line  on  either  side,  including 
A,  M,  N,  U,  V,  W,  X  and  Y,  must  be  increased  about  one- 
half  unit  for  the  Gothic  style.  For  simplicity,  however,  the 
width  of  Y  will  be  made  5^,  the  same  as  V  and  X. 

As  the  Gothic  letters  have  no  serifs  and  but  comparatively 
few  horizontal  lines,  it  will  be  more  convenient  to  limit  the 
circular  edges  and  the  ends  of  vertical  or  inclined  lines  by 
the  outer  guide  lines,  and  place  the  edges  of  the  horizontal 
lines  a  trifle  inside  of  them  in  order  to  make  the  apparent 
depths  uniform.  Further,  since  the  intermediate  light  lines 
of  the  Roman  capitals  are  here  replaced  by  lines  of  the  same 
weight  as  those  used  for  the  stems,  the  interior  space  of  the 
O  is  relatively  increased  as  compared  with  H,  E,  B,  etc. 


ART.  o. 


GOTHIC    CAPITALS. 


IQ 


For  these  reasons  the  width  of  the  O  will  be  reduced  \<>  =,'.-. 
and  the  arcs  of  circles  will  be  united  by  short  vertical  curves 
of  longer  radii  on  the  sides.  The  same  construction  applies 
to  CL,  ('..  (i  and  1).  The  width  of  1)  is  modified  so  as  to 
keep  it  intermediate  between  H  and  O.  As  the  spur  of  C 
disappears  the  upper  and  lower  parts  will  become  alike. 

The  curves  of  H.  J.  P.  R  and  U  may  be  made  semi-circu- 
lar. Two  arcs  of  circles  are  also  used  in  &.  The  curved 
hair-line  projections  at  the  bottom  of  R  and  &  having  noth- 
ing to  take  their  place  in  the  Gothic  form,  the  widths  are 
therein'  reduced  by  one-half  unit.  The  right  lower  stem  of 
R  will  give  the  best  appearance  to  the  letter  when  it  is 
iit.  The  same  relative  appearance  of  the  upper  and 
lower  portion-,  of  S  and  /  is  secured  by  a  difference  of  't 
unit  in  width  as  in  the  Roman  form  by  a  difference  of  ,'_• 
unit.  Special  care  should  be  exercised  to  have  the  middle 
part  of  the  S  cross  the  vertical  center  line  slightly  above  mid- 
height. 

In  inking  letters  of  the  size  shown  on  Plate  III  double  lines 
should  be  drawn  with  a  narrow  space  between  them,  which 
is  tilled  in  afterwards.  This  enables  the  draftsman  readily  to 
secure  uniform  thickness  of  all  the  parts,  and  to  work  more 
rapidly,  as  the  danger  of  blotting  is  thereby  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 


Hair-line  Gothic  capitals,  both  vertical  and  inclined,  aie 
shown  on  Plate  V.  the  latter  having  a  height  ol  7  units. 
Special  facility  should  be  acquired  by  the  student  in  the  con- 
struction of  Gothic  letters  because  ol  their  wide  range  of 
application.  MS  stated  more  in  detail  in  Ait.  ji.  using  instru- 
ments for  the  larger  si/e  and  making  the  smaller  si/es  free- 
hand. The  inclined  letters  are  especially  useful  for  rapid 
freehand  construction,  .is  slight  inequalities  in  inclination 
and  in  other  details  are  not  as  apparent  as  in  the  upright 
form. 

Sometimes  the  strokes  of  the  heavv  letters  are  made  with 
round  ends,  but  the  effect  of  this  detail  is  not  as  good  as 
that  of  square  ends. 

Four  forms  old  are  shown  side  by  side  in  Fig.  \h  for  the 
purpose  of  comparison,  the  lower  width  being  5'.-  in  all  but 

the  last,  where  it  is  -,'.,.  or  the 
same  as  the  upper  width.  Hven 
in  this  case  the  letter  appeals 
Fig.  is.  slightly   narrower  at  the  top. 

The  third  and  fourth  forms  aie 

more  completely  in  harmony  with  the  extreme  simplicity  ol 
the  Gothic  stvlethan  the  first  and  second.  The  third  pre- 
sents the  better  appearance  in  larger  letters  constructed  with 


20 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LETTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 


care,  while  the  fourth  is  better  adapted  to  small  freehand 
letters.     See  Plate  XIX  for  an  application  of  the  latter. 

ART.  10.     GOTHIC  SMALL. 

The  Gothic  small  letters  (Plate  III)  are  derived  from  the 
Roman  by  the  application  of  the  same  principles  which  were 
used  in  the  case  of  the  corresponding  capitals. 

The  widths  of  v,  w,  x  and  y  are  therefore  made  one-half 
unit  wider  than  the  Rom;in,  and  it  would  perhaps  be  pref- 
erable to  make  w  an  additional  half  unit  wider,  thus  making 
it  the  same  as  m.  The  resulting  width  of  q  is  twice  the 
width  of  v  alter  it  is  reduced  one  unit.  For  the  sake  of 
simplicity  the  o,  c  and  e  are  constructed  with  a  single  circle. 

The  bulbs  of  the  Roman  v,  f,  j  and  y  are  omitted  and 
the  curves  terminated  in  very  short  horizontals,  the  width  of 
y  being  reduced  one-half  unit  and  of  the  others  one  unit. 
The  upper  projection  of  g  is  treated  in  the  same  way. 

No  substitute  is  made  for  the  curved  hair  lines  of  the  Ro- 
man a  and  t.  Some  draftsmen  terminate  the  vertical  stems 
of  the  Gothic  a  and  t  similarly  to  the  f  and  j,  but  this  treat- 
ment is  not  in  harmony  with  the  simplicity  of  this  style  of 
letter,  in  which  not  only  the  feet  but  also  the  spurs  of  letters 
are  omitted.  When  the  stems  are  thus  extended  they  re- 


place curves  which  haJ  bulbs  in  the  Roman  style  and  not 
simply  curved  hair  lines. 

The  vertical  limb  of  b  is  sometimes  extended  down  to  the 
guide  line,  like  d,  but  the  form  given  is  to  be  preferred. 

The  form  of  a  may  be  simplified  by  eliminating  the  re- 
versed curve  in  one  of  its  lines,  and  either  extending  it  on  a 
horizontal  to  the  vertical  limb  or  curving  the  end  downward 
so  that  the  entire  curve  may  form  a  part  of  a  single  ellipse. 
The  three  forms  are  shown  side  by  side  in  Fig.  17.  A 
fourth  form  is  given  next  to  these  which  in  small  scale  iree- 
hand  work  is  frequently  employed.  The  coi responding 


Fig.  17. 

form  of  g  is  placed  on  its  right.  The  same  letters  when  in- 
clined are  also  shown  in  the  figure.  The  form  of  g  at  the 
end  of  the  line  is  employed  to  a  limited  extent  in  practice, 
but  is  not  to  be  commended  on  account  of  its  less  conven- 
ient construction.  The  forms  of  both  a  and  g  should  pref- 
erably correspond  to  their  character  in  stump  writing.  The 
lower  line  of  g  must  be  curved  to  the  left  in  order  to  distin- 
guish it  from  q. 


ART.   n. 


ROMAN  OLD  STYLE. 


All  of  the  inclined  letters  m.iv  be  regarded  ;is  derived  iVoni 
stump  wiiting  r.ither  than  din.-i.tly  from  the  Italic  small. 
The  complete  alphabets  in  both  the  upright  and  inclined  let- 
ters in  hair  line  are  given  on  Plate  V,  the  latter  having  a 
height  of  7  units. 

ART.   11.     ROMAN  OLD  STYLE. 

The  proportions  of  this  style  of  letter  which  are  given 
on  Plate  VI  and  are  16  millimeters  high  were  obtained  by 
careful  measurements  of  the  best  printed  forms  tliat  could  be 
found  by  the  author,  those  selected  being  u».  =,  millimeters 
high.  Verv  slight  modifications,  however,  were  made  in  a 
lew  >..isex.  as.  lor  instance,  in  moving  the  intermediate  hori- 
zontal lines  of  P  and  R  from  just  below  mid-height  to  then 
present  position,  which  is  the  same  as  that  of  B.  and  also  in 
widening  the  lower  part  i  >f  t  he  ( i  to  be  equal  to  that  of  C,  their 
upper  parts  having  been  the  same.  It  would,  perhaps,  be 
advisable  to  increase  the  width  of  M  both  above  and  below 
by  #  so  as  to  reduce  the  measurements  involving  quarter- 
units  to  a  minimum. 

On  comparing  the  H  with  that  on  Plate  I  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  distance  between  the  center  lines  of  the 
stems  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  height  in  both  cases. 
It  the  exterior  width  of  the  old  style  H  be  made  the  same 


as  the  modern  or  5  units,  the  height  of  the  former  will  be 
6.4  units  instead  of  the  6  units  of  the  latter,  or  if  the  height 
be  6  in  both  cases  the  widths  will  be  4.7  and  5  respectively. 

The  most  noticeable  difference  between  the  two  styles  is 
in  the  width  of  stem,  the  old  style  being  one-seventh  of  the 
width  and  the  modern  one-fifth,  while  the  light  lines  of  the 
former  are  about  double  the  thickness  of  the  hair  lines  of 
the  latter.  The  hooks  of  C,  E,  F,  G,  L,  S,  T  and  Z  have 
their  outer  edges  inclined  instead  of  vertical.  J  extends 
below  the  lower  guide  lines,  the  sides  of  M  are  given  a 
slight  batter,  and  the  stem  of  R  with  its  double  reversed 
curvature  is  replaced  by  a  straight  one.  The  outer  edges  of 
C,  G,  O  and  O_  are  circular  and  the  center  lines  of  the 
curved  stems  of  B,  P  and  R  are  arcs  of  circles.  The  larger 
part  of  the  interior  edge  of  C  is  shown  as  a  semi-circle. 
while  another  form  of  the  C  is  shown  in  the  title  of  the 
plate.  In  Q_  the  double  reversed  curve  of  the  appendage 
is  united  to  the  body  of  the  letter  by  an  easy  curve  tangent 
to  both.  ()n  Plate  VII  a  simple  but  not  so  elegant  a  form  is 
shown,  the  connecting  line  being  straight  and  not  tangent 
to  the  body  of  the  letter  but  meeting  its  lower  curve  at  (he 
middle. 

If  the  widths  of  the  letters  marked  on  Plate  VI  are  reduced 
to  the  same  unit  as  that  used  on  Plate  I  the  principal  differ- 


22 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  LETTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 


ence  will  be  ns  follows:  B,  J,  K,  P,  R  and  Y;ire respectively 
3/a,  il/2,  J/s,  J/B  and  y&  narrower;  C,  G,  L,  O,  a,  T,  V,  W 
and  Z  are  respectively  %,  ft,  Ya,  %,  %,  i#,  ZA,  H  and  % 
wider,  while  the  rest  are  either  the  same  or  differ  less  than 
%  from  the  widths  of  the  modern  style.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  upper  and  lower  widths  of  letters  is  about  50  per 
cent,  greater  except  in  C  and  G. 

The  curves  of  the  serifs  are  elliptical,  and  while  tangent 
to  the  edges  of  the  stems  or  light  lines,  make  a  decided 
angle  with  the  horizontals.  These  curves  occur  on  both 
sides  instead  of  only  on  the  outer  side  as  before,  and  while 
being  relatively  larger  in  most  cases  they  are  smaller  in  the 
serifs  at  the  ends  of  the  light  lines  of  A,  K,  M,  N,  U,  V,  W, 
X  and  Y. 

The  lower  horizontals  are  shown  on  Plate  VI  to  be  slightly 
heavier  than  the  upper  ones.  While  such  a  distinction  in 
weight  produces  a  pleasing  effect  on  letters  drawn  to  a  fairly 
large  scale,  it  is  not  practicable  on  small  letters.  All  other 
details  are  indicated  on  the  plate  so  clearly  as  not  to  require 
any  further  description. 

The  small  letters  differ  in  such  a  few  particulars  from  the. 
modern  style  that  they  have  not  been  separately  constructed. 
They  are  shown  on  Plate  XLI,  which  is  printed  from  type. 
Aside  from   the   same   difference   in  weight  which   exists 


between  the  capitals,  the  main  feature  which  characterizes 
the  style  is  that  in  all  single  caps  inclined  curves  are  substi- 
tuted for  the  horizontal  right  lines,  and  so  arranged  as  to 
make  the  stem  pointed.  The  serifs  projecting  on  both  sides 
of  the  limb  to  which  they  are  attached  remain  horizontal,  as 
in  the  modern  style.  All  bulbs  are  elongated. 

ART.   12.     FRENCH  OLD  STYLE. 

On  Plate  Vll  are  shown  the  French  Old  Style  capitals  in 
comparison  with  the  Roman  Old  Style,  the  former  being  a 
variation  of  the  latter,  to  illustrate  more  effectively  their  dif- 
ferences of  form.  They  are  reduced  to  the  same  height  and 
the  letter  H  was  found  to  have  the  same  width  in  the  three 
alphabets  shown  on  the  plate. 

The  lower  series  of  French  Old  Style  was  copied  from 
Georg  Heinrich  Paritius,  1710,  as  published  in  Collection 
D'alphabets  Ornes,  by  A.  LHVY  of  Paris,  while  the  upper 
series  was  constructed  after  in  iking  a  careful  comparison  of 
a  large  number  of  printed  types  ranging  from  16  to  23^  mil- 
limeters in  height,  as  found  in  architectural  works  issued 
by  a  number  of  the  leading  modern  publishers  of  Paris. 
The  proportions  given  represent  what  might  be  called  the 
moderate  style,  as  opposed  to  the  extreme  style  in  which 
B,  E,  F,  L,  P,  Rand  S  are  materially  reduced  in  width,  while 


ART.   12. 


FRHNCH  OLD  STYLE. 


the  other  letters  remain  about  the  same.  The  lower  alpha- 
bet on  the  plate  belongs  t ••  this  style  in  m<>st  of  its  U-atuies. 
and  the  contrast  between  such  letter  -  s  and  O,  for  ex- 
ainple.  is  very  decided  and  serves  to  decrease  the  legibility. 
The  widths  of  the  letters  in  the  upper  series  are  given  in 
the  following  table.  For  instance,  the  widths  ol  E  follow  in 

WIDTHS  OF  FRENCH  OLD  STYI.K  CAPITALS  IN 

Ul'I'hK    ShRII-S    OF    Pi  ATK    VII. 


A       * 

H 

O      w 

V       TH 

B      **« 

1        K 

I1     »H.J< 

W   7H-««+7H 

c   «*.»« 

J      ». 

Q^    w<s» 

X      W*-7* 

D 

K    ®*-7« 

R     W4.3H.7 

Y        T.» 

E  ».«H,«m-x 

L    «.<«+« 

S     «.»« 

Z     754.7*+* 

F        S.4K.H 

M    «w."M 

T     %.« 

G     W'8* 

N      6* 

u     - 

iet,'ular  order  for  the  upper,  middle  and  lower  parts.  The 
scale  used  in  constructing  the  Roman  Old  Style  was  also 
employed  for  this  series.  The  stems  measure  ft  ;  the  ver- 


tical and  inclined  light  lines  ^-16,  and  which  are  sometimes 
increased  to  fo  ;  the  intermediate  horixoiitals  ol  I  .  |;  and  H 
are  fa;  the  upper  horixoiitals  ol  H  and  F,  and  both  horizon- 
tals of  /.,  are  7-16;  the  lower  horizontal  of  H  and  those  of  L 
and  T  are  ,'j,  while  all  the  remaining  horizontals  are  s-l6 
unit  wide.  Such  elaborate  distinctions  as  these  are  made 
very  seldom  and  then  only  in  large  letters. 

The  curved  stems  of  B.  1).  I*  and  K  are  made  lo  sa«j  as  il 
constructed  of  plastic  material  which  is  yielding  to  the  influ- 
ence of  gravity.  The  curves  of  the  caps  occur  only  on  the 
outside  of  the  stems,  while  those  at  the  bases  are  found  on 
both  sides.  Many  of  the  letters  have  the  same  form  as  the 
Roman  Old  Style,  and  the  distinguishing  features  of  the 
others  are  clearly  shown  on  Plate  VII  and  should  be  carefully 
observed  by  the  student.  The  letter  having  the  poons: 
sign  in  this  style  is  R,  which  is  formed  by  adding  a  Hying 
pendant  to  the  P,  which  appears  to  put  the  letter  in  un- 
stable equilibrium  and  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the  line 
form  of  the  Roman  R  just  above  it. 

Sometimes  the  stems  of  the  extreme  style  ate  reduced 
to#. 

ART.    ij.     MODIFIhl)  PROPORTIONS. 

The  modern  Roman  and  the  Gothic  letters,  whose  con- 
struction was  given  on  Plates  I,  II  and  III.  all  had  that  rela- 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LETTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 


tion  between  width  and  height  which  was  designated  as 
the  normal  one  in  Art.  2  ;  that  is,  the  height  was  6  units 
for  the  exterior  width  of  H  of  5  units.  The  Roman  and 
French  Old  Styles,  given  on  Plates  VI  and  VII,  also  have  the 
normal  proportion,  the  height  being  9  units  and  the  width 
of  the  H  7  units.  The  same  unit  of  measure  was  em- 
ployed for  the  Gothic  as  for  the  modern  Roman,  as  the 
former  is  constructed  with  stems  varying  up  to  one  unit  in 
width,  and  as  the  resulting  measurements  are  easily  derived 
from  those  of  the  Roman  they  are  readily  remembered. 

If  the  same  unit  of  one-fifth  of  the  width  of  H  had  been 
employed  for  the  Roman  Old  Style,  the  measurements  ob- 
tained would  have  differed  from  most  of  those  of  the  modern 
Roman  by  quantities  that  seem  entirely  arbitrary  and  could 
not  be  remembered  so  easily  as  those  given  on  Plate  VI 
(See  Art.  n). 

Although  it  may  seem  at  first  that  a  large  number  of 
measurements  have  already  been  recorded  on  the  plate  re- 
ferred to,  it  will  be  found  that  their  use  in  practice  soon  fixes 
them  in  mind,  so  that  only  occasional  reference  to  the  plate 
may  be  required. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  effect  of  changes  in  the  height 
and  in  the  width  of  stem,  the  following  values  have  been 
employed  in  constructing  the  letters  on  Plates  IV,  X  and 


XI :  On  Plate  IV  the  height  is  7  units  and  the  stems  ft  unit 
wide  throughout;  on  Plates  X  and  XI  the  values  used  are 
given  in  the  table  below: 


PLATE  X. 

Height. 

Stem. 

6 

%        Throttle  Lever. 

Height. 

Stem. 

6 

i  ,00  Palace  Car. 

6 

J'z         Elevation. 

6 

^        Sway  Bracing. 

PLATE  XI. 

6 

i          Precise  Levels. 

9 

Yi        Chamber  of  Com- 

7 

|ijf        Suburban  Divisions 

merce. 

6 

y2         Distributing  Cham- 

9 

^         Ceiling  of  the  Nortn 

ber. 

Hall,  etc. 

7 

Y2         Magnetic    Declina- 

11A 

%         Elevation  of  West 

tion. 

Front,  etc. 

9 

i         Jetty  Channel. 

i 

^        Screened  Nook,  etc. 

6 

'/^)  Monument. 

i 

^         Golden  Gate,  etc. 

7 

%        Switch  Stand. 

6 

Yz         Detail  of  Main  Fire- 

6 

i         Asphalt  Pavement. 

place. 

7 

^        Helical  Springs. 

8 

%i        Cornice  and  Para- 

6 

y2        Three-throw 

pet,  etc. 

Switch. 

8 

Y2         End  of  Giand  Hall, 

7 

Yz         Direct-coupled 

etc. 

Generator. 

1 

i          The  University  Li- 

7 

i          Potsdam  Sandstone 

brary 

The  scales  employed  were,  as  a  rule,  not  the  same  for  the 
different  lines  containing  letters  of  the  same  style,  but  were 


ART.   i ; 


MODIFIED  PROPORTIONS. 


selecied  M.  ax  to  make  the  lines  consisting  of  one  or  more 
K  ni  approximately  given  lengths. 

It  will  be  noticed  th:it  a:i  incre.'si-  of  height  from  <•>  to  7 
while  the  stem  remains  unchanged  reduces  the  apparent 
>Aeii:ht  slightly,  but  when  the  stem  is  reduced  to  %  at  the 
.same  time,  as,  for  example,  in  "Suburban  Division"  and 

Helical  Springs,"  on  Plate  X,  the  difference  between  them 
and  the  letters  jus!  above  them  is  considerably  magnified. 

In  the  title.  "Detail  of  Main  Fireplace,"  on  plate  XI,  in 
which  the  height  is  6.  it  is  observed  that  the  reduction  of 
the  stems  to  J4  has  increased  the  relative  widths  of  interior 
spaces  too  much,  and  thereby  marred  the  general  appear- 
ance. If,  therefore,  a  very  light  and  airy  letter  is  desired, 
the  height  should  be  increased  to  at  least  7  to  counteract  the 
effect  of  a  decided  diminution  in  the  weight  of  the  stem. 
In  the  second  line  below  it  the  height  was  increased  to  8, 
and  the  result  is  satisfactory.  The  spurs  in  both  of  these 
lines  were  shortened  a  little  to  indicate  the  result,  but  this  is 
seen  to  be  a  departure  which  is  not  to  be  recommended. 
As  the  inferior  appearance  in  the  former  example  was 
mainly  in  the  letters  with  vertical  spurs,  E,  F,  L  and  T,  it 
should  be  noticed  that  this  condition  is  not  produced  by  re- 
ducing the  stem  of  the  Roman  Old  Style  where  the  spurs 
are  inclined,  as  is  shown  in  the  first  line  of  the  plate. 


Increasing  the  height  of  letters  necessarily  changes  the 
curvature  of  lines  of  contour  and  the  positions  of  centers 
from  those  shown  on  the  plates  giving  the  construction.  In 
B.  for  instance,  the  inner  edge  of  each  curved  stem  was 
drawn  on  Plate  I  as  an  arc  of  a  circle,  but  if  the  height  is  in- 
creased the  circle  should  gradually  move  outward  until  it 
becomes  the  outer  edge  of  the  stem.  When  the  circle  be- 
comes the  center  line  of  the  stem  its  value  on  the  drawing  is 


u. 


to  serve  only  as  a  convenient  guide  to  the  curves  of  the 
edges  which  are  drawn  freehand.  Fig.  18  gives  this  letter 
for  heights  of  s,  6,  7,  8.  9  and  10. 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LETTERS. 


CHAP.  I. 


On  the  same  figure  the  letter  O  is  given  for  different 
heights,  the  outlines  being  three  centered  ovals  approxi- 
mating very  closely  to  the  ellipse.  The  centers  are  located 
by  measurement  and  the  letters  may  be  rapidly  constructed 
in  practice  by  laying  off  these  measurements  with  the  re- 
quired scale.  These  centers  are  also  useful  in  constructing 
C,  G  and  CL,  and  when  several  of  them  are  to  be  made  at 
one  time  to  the  same  scale,  the  most  convenient  plan  is  to 
locate  the  centers  on  a  piece  of  tracing  paper,  on  which  are 
also  marked  the  tangents  at  the  sides,  so  that  the  tracing  may 
be  quickly  placed  in  position  and  the  centers  transferred 
with  a  needle  point.  Of  course  such  construction  with  the 
aid  of  the  dividers  is  only  needed  when  the  letters  are  large 
and  better  results  are  required  than  can  be  readily  secured 
by  a  freehand  sketch  of  the  outlines.  The  interior  edge  is 
always  drawn  freehand  with  its  vertical  tangents  as  guides. 

The  Gothic  O  should  have  a  curvature  about  equal  to 
the  center  line  of  the  Roman  form.  For  a  height  of  8,  if  the 
outer  arcs  are  drawn  at  the  top  and  bottom  with  a  radius  of 
2j4,  the  sides  can  easily  be  sketched  in  tangent  to  these  arcs 
and  to  the  vertical  construction  lines.  For  a  height  of  icthe 
radius  should  be  2|4.  Sometimes  the  upper  and  lower  parts 
are  made  semi-circles,  united  by  vertical  straight  sides,  but 
this  form  does  not  present  as  pleasing  an  appearance  as  if 


the  sides  are  slightly  curved.  The  curved  portions  of  B  may 
be  semi  circles  for  all  heights  usually  employed  in  practice. 

The  other  curved  letters,  both  Roman  and  Gothic,  are 
treated  in  a  similar  manner  to  B  and  O,  and  the  remaining 
letters  of  the  alphabet  are  constructed  with  the  usual  guide 
lines  and  the  scale  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  was  indicated 
in  Arts,  4-10,  irrespective  of  their  height 

Extended  letters  are  but  seldom  required,  while  condensed 
letters  are  needed  frequently  in  practice.  The  use  of  the 
former  is  obviated  by  reducing  the  number  of  lines  and  using 
condensed  letters  if  necessary  for  the  increased  number  of 
words  in  any  line.  The  round  letters  are  not  so  easily  con- 
structed when  extended  as  when  condensed. 

Broad  face  or  full  face  letters  should  be  sparingly  employed 
in  the  drafting  rooms  of  engineers  and  architects.  The  requi- 
site prominence  can  usually  be  secured  by  using  letters  of 
larger  dimensions  and  of  the  normal  weight.  Inexperienced 
draftsmen  have  a  tendency  to  make  the  lettering  too  promi- 
nent rather  than  the  opposite.  When  heavy  letters  are  de- 
sired, however,  the  only  change  necessary  is  to  mark  off  the 
width  of  stem  of  1%  or  i%  units,  leaving  the  outer  construc- 
tion lines  unchanged. 

Other  examples  of  proportions  differing  from  the  normal 
will  be  referred  to  in  subsequent  articles. 


ART.   1 1. 


MODIFIED  STYLES. 


ART.    14.     MODIFIED  STYLES. 

In  tfi-ner.il  it  is  better  tor  tin-  draftsmen  to  employ  but  lew 
styles  and  to  acquire  sptvi;il  facility  in  tlieir  construction 
rather  than  to  attempt  to  use  m.mv  styles,  must  of  which 
luve  not  been  thoroughly  mastered.  While  ornamental  let- 
ters have  been  excluded  from  consideration  in  this  volume, 
.ind  while  a  lew  well-selected  styles  will  satisfy  nearly  it  not 
quite  all  of  the  requirements  of  the  drafting-office,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  observe  how  the  appearance  of  the  Roman  and 
(iothic  style  alone  may  be  modilied  by  slight  changes  in  de- 
tails and  thus  secure  a  sufficient  variety  for  gene'al  iue. 

Several  of  these  modifications  are  illustrated  on  Plates  X 
and  XL  One  of  these  consists  in  making  the  le'ters  open 
instead  of  solid,  either  shaded  or  unshaded.  The  latter  style, 
by  its  very  light  weitfht,  allows  a  larger  size  to  be  employed 
than  if  the  letters  were  filled  in  solid.  Sometimes  the  sliad- 
d  'lie  on  the  lelt  side  for  variety,  but  this  is  riot  desir- 
able, as  it  is  contrary  to  the  established  conventions  in  shad- 
ing drawings  of  all  kinds. 

The  letters  in  "Palace  Car"  are  known  as  the  finished 
Roman,  which  may  also  be  used  in  its  open  form.  Those 
in  "Monument"  may  be  regarded  as  derived  from  the  lin- 
islu-d  Roman  by  using  the  Elzevir  serifs.  This  style  is  easily 


constructed  and  looks  so  well  that  it  deserves  more  frequent 
use.  If  all  the  parts  were  made  «I  the  same  weight  this  style 
might  be  considered  as  a  modification  of  the  Gothic,  such  as 
is  shown  in  the  second  line  of  Plate  XI  and  on  Plate  XV. 

If  the  serife  and  spurs  have  straight  lines  substituted  for 
the  curves  at  their  sides,  so  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  a 
slight  enlargement  of  the  stems  at  those  points,  the  result  is 
shown  in  the  third  line  of  Plate  XL  and  also  in  the  lower 
alphabet  on  Plate  XXIII.  Plate  XXXIX  illustrates  the  effect 
when  the  lettering  on  it  is  exclusively  of  this  style.  This 
pl.re  is  reproduced  by  the  permission  of  B.  H.  TICKNOR  from 
the  Monograph  on  Trinity  Church,  Boston,  by  < ..  1).  GAM- 
BKII.I.  and  H.  H.  RICHARDSON,  published  in  1888.  By  coin- 
pa:  ing  the  second  and  third  with  the  seventh  line  of  Plate 
XI  the  difference  between  these  modilied  styles  and  the 
Gothic  may  be  observed. 

The  results  produced  by  raising  the  intermediate  horizontal 
lines  and  of  placing  prominent  serifs  0:1  light-line  letters  are 
shown  on  Plate  XVIII,  which  will  be  described  more  fully 
in  Art.  46.  Some  modifications  in  general  form  are  intro- 
duced on  Plate  XIX. 

The  inlluence  of  all  the  elements  mentioned  above  on  vari- 
ous styles  may  be  studied  further  by  examining  Plates  XLI- 
XLVIII,  which  were  printed  from  type. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  LETTERS. 


CHAP.   I. 


ART.   is.     LARGE  AND  SMALL  CAPITALS. 

The  combination  of  large  and  small  capitals  is  used  to 
some  extent  in  one-line  titles  or  in  sub-titles,  and  also  occa- 
sionally in  principal  titles.  This  arrangement  aids  in  dis- 
tinguishing the  relative  importance  of  words  and  also  serves 
to  introduce  an  element  of  variety  into  the  grouping  of  let- 
ters. This  is  especially  desirable  where  a  title  in  a  single 
line  contains  a  large  number  of  words.  On  Plate  XI  the 
second  line  would  be  improved  in  appearance  by  capitalizing 
the  words  CEILING,  NORTH  HALL,  and  PARTHENON  and  thereby 
emphasizing  them. 

In  printing  type  the  small  capitals  generally  have  nearly  or 
quite  the  same  height  as  the  short  "lower-case  "  letters,  cor- 
responding in  size  to  the  large  capitals,  but  on  a  drawing  a 
better  appearance  is  secured  by  making  them  range  from 
three-fourths  to  four-fifths  of  the  height  of  the  capitals.  In 
the  following  line 

U.  S.  STANDARD  THREAD 
U.  S.  Standard  Thread 

they  have  nearly  the  height  of  the  lower-case  letters,  which 
are  two-thirds  as  high  as  the  capitals,  while  on  Plate  X,  in 


the  last  line  but  one,  in  each  column,  their  height  is  three- 
fourths  of  that  of  the  capitals.  The  difference  in  height 
necessarily  determines  the  difference  in  weight  of  the  stems, 
since  the  two  classes  have  the  same  general  proportion,  and 
this  difference  may  become  too  decided  to  look  well.  On 
Plate  XIV  is  a- title  containing  large  capitals  and  the  effect  of 
this  feature  may  be  observed  by  comparing  it  with  similar 
titles  without  it. 

ART.  16.     THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  NUMERALS. 

The  guide  lines  and  measurements  of  the  Arabic  Numerals 
of  the  Modern  Roman  style  are  shown  in  the  first  line  of 
Plate  VIII.  The  unit  is  the  same  as  that  employed  for  the 
Roman  capitals  on  Plate  I,  and  the  height  is  also  the  same, 
or  six  units.  The  form  of  the  numerals  is  such  that  the  best 
appearance  is  secured  by  making  their  average  width  some- 
what less  than  that  of  the  capital  letters.  Six  of  the 
numerals  have  the  same  width  of  4^.  The  width  of  4  is 
the  same  as  7,  if  the  hair-line  projection  on  its  right  is  ex- 
cluded, and  the  same  as  o  (zero)  if  it  is  included.  The 
upper  width  of  6  is  a  little  narrower  than  the  lower  width 
of  9,  in  conformity  to  the  principle  stated  in  Art.  5.  The  in- 
termediate hair  lines  of  6  and  9  are  slightly  above  the  J/i  and 
y>,  guide  lines  for  the  same  reason.  One  edge  of  the  bulbs 


ART. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  NUMERALS. 


of  2,  )  and  =i  is  ;i  little  ;ibove  the  same  guide-  lines,  but  those 
ot  n  .md  M  bear  .1  corresponding  relation  to  a  %  and  #  guide 
line. 

Altmi.iU-  I. inns  of  2  and  7  an-  given  at  the  ends  of  the 
tirst  line,  and  they  are  more  easily  constructed  than  the 
others.  A  corresponding  form  of  the  Italic  3  is  also  shown 
in  the  middle  of  the  second  line,  as  well  as  still  another 
modification  of  the  upper  parts  of  jj  and  7  to  correspond  to 
that  of  =..  and  which  relieves  the  appearance  of  excessive 
weight  in  the  preceding  form.  Both  edges  of  the  upper 
st dke  are  curved.  An  alternate  form  of  4  is  shown  on 
Plates  XXII  and  XXXII. 

The  widths  of  the  numerals  in  the  Gothic  stvle  are  tin- 
same  as  in  the  Roman,  with  the  exception  of  I  and  o.  If 
the  body  was  made  a  unit  thick,  as  is  sometimes  done,  then 
i  remains  the  same.  The  o  would  be  improved  by  slightly 
decreasing  the  radii  of  the  curves  and  substituting  tangent 
curves  at  the  sides  for  the  straight  lines. 


The  lower  extremities  of  5  and  <j  do  not  extend  up  to  the 
ft  guide  line  but  to  about  the  ,'4  line,  the  same  as  in  9.  The 
fractions  %  and  ^  are  drawn  to  such  a  scale  as  to  make  the 
total  height  about  so  per  cent,  greater  than  that  of  the  in- 
\.  Another  form  of  the  i,  which  is  not  quite  so  easily 
drawn  as  the  one  given  on  this  plate,  is  shown  on  Plate  XVI. 

In  the  Roman  Old  Style  the  6  and  8  are  limited  by  the  same 
extreme  guide  lines  as  the  capitals.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  height  of  I.  2  and  o  is  two-thirds  of  this,  and  that  the 
scale  employed  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  used  for  the  capi- 
tals, thus  making  the  .miide  line  marked  i  just  a  little  higher 
than  the  coi  responding  one  ol  the  small  or  lower-case  letters. 
To  make  this  height  the  same  as  the  small  letters  would 
necessitate  using  another  scale  and  would  also  make  the 
ascending  and  descending  numerals  seem  excessively  long. 

The  smaller  numerals  on  the  plate  are  drawn  to  exactlv 
one-half  the  scale  as  the  others  of  the  corresponding  style 
whose  construction  is  given. 


THE  SPACING  OF  LETTERS. 


CHAP.  II. 


CHAP.   II.     THE  SPACING  OF  LETTERS. 


ART.  17.     THE  THEORY  OF  SPACING. 

In  the  formation  of  words  the  letters  composing  them 
must  not  only  h;ive  the  proper  relative  proportions,  as  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  chapter,  but  must  be  so  disposed 
that  the  effect  shall  be  as  nearly  uniform  as  practicable. 
Stated  negatively,  the  letters  in  one  part  of  a  word  should 
notappear crowded  as  compared  with  those  in  another  part. 

The  spacing  of  letters  which  fulfils  the  preceding  condi- 
tion of  general  uniformity  may,  however,  vary  from  a  fixed 
standard  between  the  indefinite  limits  which  may  be  char- 
acterized as  close  or  narrow  spacing  and  open  or  wide 
spacing.  Lines  i,  2  and  3,  on  Plate  IX,  show  three  different 
spacings  for  the  word  Elevation.  For  most  purposes  the 
spacing  should  not  pass  beyond  these  limits. 

The  proper  spacing  of  letters  is  equally  as  important  as 
the  good  execution  of  letters  having  well  designed  forms. 
If  the  process  of  spacing  be  improperly  carried  out,  it  will 
destroy  the  pleasing  effect  of  the  most  carefully  constructed 


letters.  So  far  as  the  author  has  been  able  to  learn,  hardly 
anything  has  been  written  on  this  subject,  and  the  few  par- 
agraphs which  he  has  found  fail  to  outline  any  definite 
methods  for  securing  the  desired  results.  The  closer  the  letters 
are  placed  the  more  difficult  it  becomes  to  adjust  them,  and 
beyond  a  certain  limit  the  legibility  is  impaired  in  the  same 
proportion.  If  it  be  necessary  lo  reduce  the  length  of  a 
word  without  diminishing  its  prominence,  it  is  better  to  con- 
dense the  letters  and  maintain  a  medium  spacing,  as  deter- 
mined by  the  new  scale,  rather  than  to  use  the  normal  pro- 
portion with  a  very  narrow  spacing.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  spacing  is  wider  than  that  shown  in  line  3,  both  the  con- 
tinuity and  individuality  of  the  words  is  impaired,  unless 
there  are  no  adjacent  lines.  Wide  spacing  of  letters  usually 
implies  also  the  correspondingly  wide  spacing  of  words  and 
lines.  To  lengthen  a  word  without  increasing  its  promi- 
nence it  is  therefore  desirable  to  employ  extended  letters  with 
a  relatively  medium  spacing.  In  mapping  and  in  some  other 


AKT.  1 8. 


STANDARD  OF  REFHRENCE. 


exceptional  cases,  where  names  are  i ilten  considerably  length- 
ciu-il.  t«>  show  thiit  they  apply  to  »iven  ;uv:is  or  distances, 
thi-  pioblem  ni  spacing  is  much  simpler  and  will  In-  treated 
in  Art.  4*. 

ART.   1 8.     STANDARD  <  >F  Kl  II  Rl  NCE. 

The  space  between  each  p.iir  ol  totters  may  bo  reduced  to 
.in  oi|»iv;ilont  space  contained  between  two  par.illol  stems, 
.uul  it  the  relative  p»sitio:i  ol  the  letters  is  properly  adjusted 
the  coiiespoiiding  equivalent  spaces  should  theoretic. illy  all 
be  equal.  Close  and  ope.i  sp.uing  may  then  be  readily  com- 
pared by  means  oi  the  corresponding  equivalent  spaces.  As 
to  what  constitutes  equivalence  will  bo  considered  later.  A 
vertical  stem  is  taken  as  the  side  ol'tho  equivalent  space,  be- 
cause about  one-halt  ol' the  letters  have  at  least  <>no  side  com- 
posed ol  such  an  element. 

Since  the  letter  H  was  used  as  a  standard  of  reference  in 
determining  the  widths  of  other  letters  it  may  also  be  em- 
plo\ed  in  finding  a  standard  for  spacing.  In  Art.  4  the  clear 
distance  between  the  stems  of  the  modern  Roman  H  was 
tixod  at  ;  units,  but  as  tlie  stems  are  connected  by  a  hori- 
zontal hair  line  the  apparent  ellect  of  the  interior  space  of  H 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  clear  space  between  two  uncon- 
iu i  ted  stems  somewhat  less  than  3  units  apart.  Let  this 


space  be  taken  as  >'_•  units.  This  width  will  make  the  in- 
terior and  exterior  spaces  limited  by  (he  top  and  bottom  guidi 
lines  approximately  uniform  and  gives  a  pleasiim  appearance 
to  the  letters  as  grouped  in  words.  This  spacing  of  2% 
units,  which  will  be  adopted  as  suitable  lor  general  use,  is 
shown  in  line  2  ol  Plate  IX,  while  the  spacing  in  line  i  is  2 
units,  and  that  in  line  7  is  ;  units. 
For  the  purpose  of  making  a  more  extended  comparison 

between  the  equivalent  spaces  they  will  be  given  for  the  let- 
teiing  on  Plates  X  and  XI.  which  includes  capitals  and  small 
letters  of  various  styles.  On  Plate  X.  taking  the  two  col- 
umns of  subtitles  in  succession,  the  equivalent  spaces  au- 

5.    2.4.     1.   2%,    2ft,    }.       (4),    2%,  2%.  2tf,    3.  2%,  2ft,     ? 

2Yi  and  }.  and  on  Plate  XI  they  are  (4).    ;.   ;.        .   ;'...   ?,   , 
)  and  3. 

The  proportions  of  the  letters  on  these  plates  were  given 
in  Art.  i  ?.  As  the  scale  used  in  the  Roman  Old  Style  is  ^-7 
of  that  of  the  others  the  space  of  4  for  that  style  equals  about 
3  in  terms  ol  the  other  scales. 

ART.  IQ.     PRINCIPLES  Ol;  SPACING. 

The  apparent  ellect  ol  Roman  letters  depends  both  on 
their  form  and  on  the  weight  ol  the  parts  composing  them. 
Because  the  serifs  are  constructed  alter  the  mam  parts  arc 


THE  SPACING  OF  LETTERS. 


CHAP.  II. 


placed  in  position,  and  since  their  influence  on  the  general 
appearance  of  the  letter  is  subsidiary,  it  is  preferable  to  make 
the  necessary  measurements  for  spacing  independent  of  them, 
so  far  as  possible. 

It  seems  reasonable  that  the  effect  of  the  masses  of  white 
(the  color  of  the  paper)  between  the  black  letters  must  be 
approximately  equalized  in  spacing,  and  therefore  the  area 
of  these  spaces  becomes  one  prominent  element  in  the 
theory  of  spacing.  The  word  "Elevation,"  in  line  ^  of 
Plate  IX,  is  constructed  by  making  the  areas  between  the 
letters  the  same  throughout.  The  areas  are  equal  to  those 
of  rectangles  as  high  as  the  letters  and  3  units  wide,  since 
this  average  width  caused  the  word  to  have  the  same  length 
as  that  in  line  2.  The  outline  of  the  space  between  E  and  V 
is  regarded  as  extending  along  horizontal  lines  from  the  tips 
of  the  upper  and  lower  spurs  of  E  to  its  central  spur,  and 
similarly  the  spaces  adjacent  to  L  and  T  are  considered  as 
limited  by  horizontal  lines  drawn  from  the  tips  of  the  spurs 
to  the  stems. 

As  these  areas  have  such  different  forms  it  is  seen  that  the 
adjacent  parts  of  some  letters  in  line  5  are  thereby  brought 
so  much  closer  together  than  others  as  to  produce  the  ap- 
pearance of  unequal  distribution.  This  indicates  that  the 
clear  distance  between  letters  is  another  element  which  must 


be  taken  into  account.  Line  6  shows  the  same  word  when 
its  letters  are  arranged  for  equal  clear  distances,  before  their 
serifs  are  drawn.  The  clear  distance  is  two  units,  and  it  is 
found  to  give  the  same  length  to  the  word  as  that  in  line  5. 

It  is  now  observed  that  the  spaces  between  L  and  E  and 
between  E  and  V  in  line  6  are  apparently  too  large.  Both 
of  these,  but  especially  the  former  one,  seemed  to  be  too 
small  in  line  >  By  combining  the  method  of  equal  areas 
with  that  of  equal  distances,  giving  the  same  weight  to 
each,  a  result  is  obtained  which  is  shown  in  line  4.  A  uni- 
form appearance  is  now  approximately  secured  for  the  spaces 
except  that  between  O  and  the  letters  adjacent  to  it.  Since 
O  is  without  projecting  serifs,  and  does  not  have  its  greatest 
width  directly  opposite  to  the  serifs  of  the  adjacent  letters, 
it  needs  to  be  brought  a  little  nearer  to  them. 

Since  N  has  only  hair  lines  on  its  sides,  and  appears  to  be 
farther  from  O  than  I  is  on  its  other  side,  it  indicates  that  the 
weight  of  exterior  lines  is  a  third  factor  which  enters  into 
spacing.  Line  2  shows  the  effect  of  making  these  modifi- 
cations. The  equivalent  space  in  line  4  is  the  average  of 
those  in  lines  5  and  6,  or  2%  units,  and  is  therefore  the  same 
as  that  in  line  2,  with  which  its  spacing  may  be  compared 
directly. 

In  line  7  there  is  a  group  of  letters  showing  the  combina- 


ART.   IQ. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  SPACING. 


lion  ol  tin   vowel  A  with  consonants  having  their  greatest 

width  either  ;it  the  top  or  .it  the  middle.     In   this  line   thev 

.ire  arranged  l>y  equal  areas  on  a  basis  ol  an  equivalent  space 

;  units  wide,  in  line  8  by  equal  clear  distances  (exclusive  ol 

he  serifs)  on  a  basis  of  2  units,  and  in  line  9  by  averaging 

!he  .ire.is  and  distances.      It  will  be  obseived  lhat  thelen.nths 

>l  the  three  lines  are  very  ne.irly  equal,  and  this  result  will 

MI    general    be   obtained   by  those   combinations  of  letters 

\  Inch  occur  in  practice.     The  h-tters  in  the  right  half  of  line 

•N  appear  to  be  somewhat  crowded  as  compared  with  the 

k'lt  h  ill,  and,  as  the  clear  distances  have  here  lobe  measured 

obliquely,  it  is  gratifying  to  notice  that  the  disposition  of  the 

letters  by  equal  areas  in  line  7  seems  to  be  jbout  as  uniform 

.is  that  in  line  q. 

The  combination  of  the  vowel  O  with  consonants  whose 
greatest  width  is  either  at  the  top  or  bottom  is  shown  in  line 
1 1  and  a  part  of  line  10,  the  spacing  being  due  to  averaging 
areas  and  clear  distances.  The  distances  between  the  verti- 
cal construction  lines  limiting  the  widths  of  the  letters  (as 
given  on  Plate  I),  when  spaced  by  areas  and  by  clear  dis- 
i.uices.  differ  by  only  1-16  unit  in  two-thirds  of  the  inter- 
vals, while  the  maximum  difference  (between  O  and  X)  is 
only  s-i6,  which  is  hardly  appreciable.  This  group  of  let- 
ters could  therefore  also  be  spaced  by  means  of  areas  alone. 


The  combinations  LT,  LV  and  LY  are  spaced  by  the  aver- 
age of  areas  and  clear  distances,  and  it  is  seen  that  the  ad- 
jacent vertical  construction  lines  on  the  sides  of  L  and  T  and 
of  L  and  Y  pass  each  other,  the  spaces  being  ->4unit.  This 
relation  gives  the  appearance  of  crowding  in  a  spacing  of 
2)4  units  and  may  be  obviated  by  limiting  the  minimum 
space  to  zero.  It  is  liable  to  occur  in  but  few  combinations. 
The  effect  of  applying  such  a  rule  is  shown  in  the  word 
Altar,  in  the  last  line  of  the  plate. 

When  two  such  letters  as  L  and  A  come  together,  as  in 
"Claims,"  in  the  same  line,  the  application  of  the  preceding 
principles  may  not  allow  sufficient  room  lor  the  addition  of  the 
adjacent  serif  on  A.  If  not,  the  letters  must  be  moved  apart 
so  as  to  admit  the  serif  which  may,  if  desired,  be  slightly  ie- 
duced  in  size.  When  F  or  T  comes  next  to  V,  W  or  Y  there 
will  be  sufficient  room  for  equivalent  spaces  of  2)4  units,  but 
not  for  those  2  units  wide. 

ART.  20.     METHODS  OF  SPACING. 

To  facilitate  spacing  by  equal  areas  alone,  it  is  necessary 
to  determine  the  position,  on  each  side  of  every  letter,  of  a 
veitical  line  which  shall  enclose  an  area  within  the  extreme 
horizontal  guide  lines  equal  to  that  of  the  contour  of  that  side. 
These  lines,  which  may  be  called  spacing  guides,  should  be 


34 


THE  SPACING  OF  LETTERS. 


CHAP.  II. 


Fig.  19. 


located  with  reference  to  the  vertical  construction  lines  defin- 
ing the  width  of  the  letters  before  the  serifs  are  added. 
Thus  for  the  letter  A,  the  outer  construction 
lines  a  and  d  in  Fig.  19  are  5^  units  apart,  and 
as  the  sloping  hair  line  on  the  left  has  a  horizon- 
tal component  of  2}^  units,  the  vertical  guide  b 
enclosing  the  same  area  as  the  hair  line  is  i% 
units  from  the  left-hand  construction  fine  a,  while 
the  guides  on  the  right  side  is  \Y^  units  from 
the  corresponding  construction  line  d.  In  the 
cases  of  C  and  G  it  is  assumed  that  an  interior  square 
whose  side  is  the  clear  opening  of  the  letter  belongs  to 
the  adjacent  exterior  space.  In  E,  F,  J,  L,  R,  S,  T  and  Z 
horizontals  are  drawn  from  the  points  of  the  projecting  spurs 
or  curves  of  the  letters  to  the  stems,  except  in  the  cases  of  E 
and  F,  where  they  meet  the  middle  spurs  before  reaching 
the  stems,  and  these  horizontals  are  regarded  as  a  part  of  the 
contour  line. 

The  relative  position  of  the  guides  is  given  in  the  second 
and  third  columns  of  the  following  table.  In  the  fourth  and 
fifth  columns  are  given  the  adjusted  values  for  those  letters 
whose  adjacent  spaces  are  sometimes  determined  without 
considering  the  clear  distance,  the  modification  being  due  to 
the  weight  of  the  side  of  the  letter,  and,  in  some  cases,  to 


the  absence  of  serifs  projecting  beyond  the  construction 
lines.  For  instance,  the  guides  are  moved  inward  on  O,  as 
that  letter  has  no  projections.  This  is  also  shown  to  be 
necessary,  as  it  is  seen  that  the  spaces  in  line  1 1  of  Plate  IX 
are  all  somewhat  larger  than  those  in  line  7,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  those  next  to  C,  which  letter  has  nearly  the  same 
form  as  the  O. 

The  guides  crossing  the  hair  lines  of  A,  U,  V  and  W  arc- 
changed  yb,  as  the  hair  lines  are  fighter  in  weight  than  the 
stems,  the  change  being  small,  since  the  difference  in  in- 
clination between  the  hair  lines  and  stems  of  A,  V  and  W 
partly  compensates  for  the  difference  in  weight.  As  L  has 
no  projections  on  its  right  side,  its  guides  should  be  moved 
about  J4  toward  the  left,  but  since  the  side  of  its  spur  lies  so 
far  beyond  the  guide,  the  latter  ought,  on  that  account  alone, 
to  be  moved  about  %  toward  the  right.  In  the  cases  of  F 
and  T,  which  do  not  project  so  far,  these  double  changes 
may  be  regarded  as  neutralizing  each  other.  The  width  of 
6  units  for  R  is  to  be  decidedly  preferred,  but  if  that  of  ~-,l/> 
is  used,  the  corresponding  distance  of  the  spacing  guide  is 
Y±,  as  entered  in  the  table  on  opposite  page  in  parentheses. 

In  columns  6  and  7  of  the  table  are  given  distances  which 
are  obtained  by  taking  one-half  of  those  in  columns  2  and  3 
(which  implies  taking  the  mean  of  areas  and  clear  distances), 


ART.  20. 


METHODS  OF  SPACING. 


!.    ».  - 

Ctrrr.u. 

(Joldn  for  Kqud 

AdjOiM  Ooldo  for 
EqwU  Arau. 

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'   iriru. 

UA 

l.rt 

I.I' 

V 

B 

P 

9 

M 

i 

p 

r 

A 

B 

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1 

J 

I 

i 

C 

D 

0 

1 
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J 

u 

D 

1. 

0 

i 

u 

, 

i-: 

F 

0 

y 

'i 

II 

F 

G 

1 
u 

3 

4 

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11 

0 

0 

u 

0 

H 

I 

0 

0 

0 

0 

I 

J 

K 

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A 

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^ 

0 

u 

I 

J 

K 

1. 

0 

2j 

•j 

0 

i 

L 

M 

0 

0 

1 

u 

M 

N 

0 

p 

0 
0 

0 

1 

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3 

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Q 

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t, 

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z 

provided  the-  neatest  points  are  directly  opposite.  ;ind  modi- 
fying the  result  by  taking  into  account  the  etleit  <>l  differ- 
ence in  weight  and  of  the  addition  of  the  projecting  parts. 
F»i  example,  the  guides  on  the  left  of  M  and  on  both  sides 
of  N  are  moved  inward  \i  unit  on  account  of  weight.  The 
effei  t  of  this  change  is  shown  in  the  spacing  of  the  second 
N  in  "  Longitudinal  "  in  line  12  of  Plate  IX,  .nui  in  the  space 
between  I  and  M  in  "Claims"  in  the  bottom  line.  The 
spacing  in  "Code"  and  "  Longitudinal  "  shows  that  the 

guides  obtained  by  averaging  area  and  clear  distance  must 

be  modified  by  about  '4  for  the  <)  and  for  the  rounded  sides 
of  C.  G  and  I).  On  comparing  the  fust  space  in  "(lode" 
with  that  in  "Gold,"  it  is  apparent  that  the  guides  in  C 
should  be  changed  on  account  of  weight.  The  line  in  I.  is 
shifted  ^  in  order  to  avoid  reducing  the  clear  space  too 
much,  as  indicated  by  a  study  of  the  space  between  I.  and 
t  in  "  hlevation  "  (line  4).  1.  and  1)  in  "  Gold."  and  1.  and  O 
in  "  Longitudinal."  The  examples  referred  to  in  the  modi- 
fications made  for  the  columns  4  to  7  inclusive  indicate 
sufficiently  the  principles  which  have  been  applied  in  detei- 
mining  all  of  the  quantities  in  these  columns. 

A  variation  of  one-eighth  unit  is  not  readily  observed,  and 
in  practice  the  width  of  the  equivalent  spaces  would  not 
need  to  be  determined  closer  than  to  quarter  units.  All 


THE    SPACING    OF    LETTERS. 


CHAP.    II. 


variations  are  less  noticeable  in  wide  than  in  narrow  spacing. 
To  distinguish  the  two  sets  of  spacing  guides  from  each 
other  they  are  referred  to  in  the  headings  in  the  table  as 
guides  for  equal  areas  and  guides  for  the  average  of  areas 
and  distances.  The  values  of  the  adjustments  were  tested 
by  a  considerable  number  of  examples,  but  it  is  quite  possi- 
ble that  the  final  values  may  in  some  cases  be  slightly  mod- 
ified as  the  result  of  more  extended  use. 

ART.  21.     RULES   FOR   SPACING. 

As  a  result  of  these  observations  the  following  rules  for 
the  spacing  of  modern  Roman  capitals  may  be  given  : 

First. — All  spaces  between  the  adjacent  parts  of  letters 
whose  greatest  projections  are  at  the  same  height,  are  de- 
termined by  subtracting  from  2>^  units  the  sum  of  the  cor- 
responding distances  in  columns  6  and  7  of  the  table  (Art.  20). 

Second. — Where  the  right  side  of  C,  E,  G,  K,  S  or  X, 
or  the  left  side  of  Z— whose  upper  width  is  but  a  little  less 
than  the  lower — is  placed  opposite  to  a  letter  whose  widest 
projection  is  at  the  top,  the  preceding  rule  is  applied,  and 
the  resulting  space  is  reduced  by  one-half  the  difference 
between  the  upper  and  lower  width. 

Third. — All  spaces  between  the  adjacent  parts  of  letters 
whose  greatest  projections  are  at  different  heights  are  de- 


termined by  subtracting  from  3  units  the  corresponding  dis- 
tances in  columns  4  and  5. 

Fourth. — If  in  any  case  the  difference  thus  obtained  is  less 
than  zero  it  shall  be  increased  to  zero. 

Fifth. — The  minimum  allowable  space  must  admit  the 
serifs,  if  any,  without  quite  touching.  The  serifs  may  be 
slightly  shortened,  if  necessary. 

Sixth. — If  the  spacing  is  to  be  on  a  basis  differing  by  not 
more  than  l/2  unit  from  an  equivalent  space  of  2)2  units,  the 
above  rules  will  still  apply  after  making  the  corresponding 
changes  in  the  quantities  "2^"  and  "9"  in  the  first  and 
third  rules,  respectively.  In  narrower  spacing  the  influence 
of  clear  distances  would  predominate,  while  in  wider 
spacing  that  of  areas  would  be  the  greater. 

The  application  of  these  rules  to  the  word  "Elevation" 
gives  the  following  result:  The  first  space  is  2^-^2=2;  the 
second,  2^-74=  i?s;  the  third,  2^-^-^-^=!^;  the 
fourth,  )-I^-I/S  =  J/B;  the  fifth,  3-i}^-iX'=o:  the  sixth, 
2K~^='M;  the  seventh,  2^-^  =  2,  and  the  eighth, 
2l/2-^-J/i  =  i^.  It  is  seen  that  this  spacing  differs  but  little 
from  that  given  in  line  2  of  the  plate,  and  which  was  done 
before  the  above  rules  were  deduced.  The  value  of  the 
rules  may  be  tested  by  inspecting  those  plates  which  were 
drawn  by  the  author,  as  indicated  in  the  preface. 


ART.  22. 


SPACING  ROMAN  SMALL. 


ART.  22.     SPACING  ROMAN  SMALL. 

As  k,  o,  s,  v,  w,  x  and  z  have  the  same  forms  as  the  cor- 
responding capitals  they  will  be  spaced  in  the  same  manner. 
The  y  will  be  tre.ited  like  v,  unless  it  should  come  after  j  or 
g,  which  occurs  so  seldom  that  no  general  provision  for  it 
needs  to  be  made;  e  is  so  nearly  like  the  o  that  it  may  be 
.-paced  like  it,  and  the  rounded  sides  of  c,  b,  d,  p  and  q  are 
also  treated  like  the  o.  When  f  precedes  i  its  bulb  displaces 
the  dot,  and  when  it  precedes  I  its  bulb  is  omitted  and  the 
curved  hair  line  is  joined  to  the  cap  of  the  I. 

The  measurements  corresponding  to  those  of  columns  6 
and  7  in  the  table  in  Art.  20  are  #  for  the  left  of  a,  i  for  the  right 
of  a,  %  for  the  right  of  c,  i  for  the  right  of  r,  i  for  the  right  of  t. 
-Yt  for  the  left  of  t,  but  which  is  used  only  when  it  follows 
r.  If  the  construction  lines  limiting  the  lower  width  of  g 
are  used,  the  measurements  are  y^  on  the  left  and  Vi  on  the 
right,  the  latter  being  reduced  in  case  the  cap  of  an  ad- 
jacent letter  should  come  nearer  to  the  bulb  than  a  half  unit. 

The  spacing  guides  on  the  right  of  h,  n  and  m,  and  on 
the  left  of  u,  are  so  close  to  the  sides  of  the  letters  that  the 
distance  may  usually  be  regarded  as  zero.  On  large  letters 
the  distance  may  be  taken  at  #. 

The  only  instances  in  which  the  method  of  adjusted  areas 
would  need  to  be  employed  is  in  combinations  of  e  or  o  with 


ihf'n 


k,  v,  w,  x,  y  and  /.  and  that  can  be  avoided  bylfcjnjz  the 
measurements  in  columns  6  and  7  of  the  table  ivter.. 
subtracting  an  additional  half  u^tff/v 

For  examples  in  spacing  this  si  late  X,  If' 

lent  space  being  3  for  "  Precise  Levels"  and  "  Potsdai 
stone,"  and  2l/t  for  "Suburban  Divisions." 

When  a  capital  precedes  a  small  leh^r  the  spa^e  between 
them  is  generally  made  the  same  as  if  borKwe/Csmall  letters. 
l'i  the  case  of  overhanging  letters  the  spacing"  guides  for  areas 
will  naturally  be  employed. 

ART.  23.     SPACING  STUMP  WRITING. 

This  style  is  easily  spaced,  since  nearly  one-half  of  the  let- 
ters have  curved  hair  lines  projecting  beyond  their  bodies 
on  the  right.  Whenever  these  hair  lines  are  adjacent  to  the 
stem  of  a  letter  whose  edge  coincides  with  the  outer  con- 
struction line  at  the  #  guide  line,  as  in  h,  I,  i,  t,  f,  k,  b,  n. 
m,  u  or  v,  a  space  of  one-half  unit  may  be  left  between  them, 
and  when  they  are  adjacent  to  curved  stems,  as  in  q,  g,  d,  o, 
c,  e  and  a,  the  hair  lines  should  end  on  the  left  construction 
line  of  those  letters  and  thus  be  approximately  distant  a  hall 
unit  from  the  stem  itself.  In  other  words,  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  adjacent  construction  lines  in  these  two  cast 
one-half  and  zero  respectively.  When  other  elements  of  the 


THE  SPACING  OF  LETTERS. 


CHAP.  II. 


letters  are  adjacent  to  each  olher  they  should  be  spaced  like 
the  Roman  small  on  the  basis  of  an  equivalent  space  of  2l/z. 
Where  a  letter  like  a  is  derived  from  d,  instead  of  the  corre- 
sponding a  in  Roman  small,  it  must  be  treated  like  d  in  spacing. 
Examples  are  shown  on  Plates  X  and  XVII.  The  equiva- 
lent space  in  "Helical  Springs,"  however,  is 3,  which  is  seen 
to  be  too  wide  for  the  spaces  not  determined  by  the  project- 
ing hair  lines.  It  is  better  to  make  it  always  2^/2,  as  is  done 
in  Title  2  on  Plate  XVII.  In  very  small  letters  the  hair  lines 
are  frequently  made  to  touch  the  succeeding  letters  instead 
of  leaving  a  small  space  as  indicated  above.  See  Plates 
XXVII  and  XXIX. 

ART.  24.     SPACING  GOTHIC  LETTERS. 

The  spacing  of  the  Gothic  letters  is  simplified  by  the  ab- 
sence of  serifs  and  spurs.  The  measurements  should  not 
differ  materially  from  those  of  the  Roman  style,  and  in 
the  interest  of  convenience  may  be  fixed  so  as  to  be  appli- 
cable to  all  weights  of  limbs,  ranging  from  a  hair  line  to  one 
unit  in  width. 

The  final  test  of  the  measurements  given  in  the  following 
table  lies  in  a  careful  inspection  of  the  results  secured  by 
their  use  in  practice.  It  is  quite  likely  that  some  improve- 
ments may  be  made  after  a  more  extended  application  than 


the  author  has  been  able  to  make.  Several  examples  are 
given  on  Plate  X,  the  equivalent  space  being  3  for  "  Eleva- 
tion "  and  2^2  for  "Sway  Bracing,"  "Switch  Stand  "  and 
"Throttle  Lever/'  Plate  XVI  is  also  a  good  illustration,  the 
equivalent  space  being  2^2  units  throughout. 

TABLE  FOR  SPACING  GOTHIC  CAPITALS. 


Adjusted  Guides 
of  Equal  Areas. 

Adjusted  Guides 
ot  the  Average 
of    Areas   and 
Distances. 

Adjusted  Guides 
of  Kqtial  A  )••  ;i  -. 

Adjusted  Guides 
of  thi-  Average 
of    Areas   and 

1  M-tanccs. 

Left. 

Right. 

Left. 

Right. 

Left. 

Right. 

Lett. 

Right. 

A 

11 

Ii 

| 

1 

N 

0 

0 

B 
C 

\ 

f 
\ 

0 

i 

I 

0 
P 

1 

| 

\ 
0 

i 

D 

k 

0 

1 

Q 

1 

\ 

\ 

i- 

E 

0 

1 

R 

0 

\ 

F 

If 

0 

S 

I 

I 

G 

i 

i 

\ 

* 

T 

if 

If 

1 

H 

0 

0 

U 

i 

i 

i 

i 

I 

0 

0 

V 

ii 

ii 

ii 

4 

2 

4 

J 

1 

A 

w 

i 

1 

A 

i 

K 

H 

0 

! 

X. 

ii 

H 

i 

L 

2 

0 

ii 

Y 

if 

!J 

J 

M 

0 

0 

Z 

ij 

Ii 

i 

I 

The  Gothic  small  are  to  be  treated  in  a  similar  manner  to 
the  Roman  small,  as  described  in  Art.  22,  by  comparing 
them  with  their  own  capitals.  The  left  spacing  guide  of  a 


ART.  i 


WORD  SPACING. 


and  the  right  guide  of  r  ;iiv  placed  in  the  same  positions  as 
for  the  Rom. m  small.  The  right  guide  of  g  is,  however, 
moved  #  farther  to  the  left,  as  the  upper  appendage  does 
not  project  over  so  far  as  the  corresponding  bulb  in  the 
Roman  style.  Those  in  s  may  be  changed  to  *6  instead  of 
#,  as  in  the  corresponding  capital,  while  c  is  treated  like 
the  capital  to  which  it  is  similar. 

In  spacing  f  and  t  it  is  more  convenient  to  measure  from 
the  stem  than  to  draw  construction  lines  through  ihe  ends 
of  the  cross  Kir.  The  guide  lines  on  both  sides  are  \'2  unit 
from  the  stem.  When  f  precedes  i  the  dot  is  not  omitted 
as  in  the  Roman. 

Four  sub-titles  are  shown  on  Plate  X,  two  vertical  and 
two  inclined,  the  equivalent  spaces  being  z}4,  3,  2%  and 
2#  respectively.  Other  examples  of  spacing  Gothic  small 
are  given  on  Plates  XVI  and  XVII. 

ART.  as.     WORD  SPACING. 

The  equivalent  spaces  between  the  words  in  lines  2  to  6 
"ii  the  left  of  Plate  X  ate  ~]1/,,  9,  9,  9  and  8*4,  and  those  in 
the  lines  on  the  right  are  7,  8,  7^,  10,  9,  8J4,  -jl/t  and  8  re- 
-pectively.  The  corresponding  spaces  on  Plate  XIV  and  in 
the  left  half  of  Plate  XVII  are  8,  while  those  on  Plate  XVI 
are  7  units.  A  comparison  of  these  spaces  leads  to  the  con- 


clusion that  all  of  them  are  of  ample  width,  and  several 
might  be  reduced  somewhat  to  advantage.  For  capitals  a 
space  of  7  or  7^  units  is  sufficient,  and  for  small  letters  it 
need  not  be  more  than  a  unit  wider.  For  an  equivalent 
space  of  2*/t  between  letters  an  approximate  rule  might  be 
given  to  make  the  space  between  words  about  three  times 
that  between  the  letters.  Any  increase  in  the  latter  would 
mak.-  an  -qual  or  slightly  larger  increase  in  the  former. 

Ii.  me.isuring  these  spaces  the  method  of  equal  areas 
would  doubtless  be  the  more  accurate,  but  .is  so  laige.i  per- 
centage of  the  spacing  is  done  by  averaging  areas  and  clear 
distances  it  is  more  convenient  to  apply  the  same  method 
here,  and  it  will  be  sufficiently  close  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses. 

The  space  between  words  separated  by  a  comma  may  In- 
increased  about  one  or  one  and  one-half  units,  while  the 
space  following  the  end  of  a  sentence  should  be  about 
double  the  usual  space  between  words. 

In  general,  words  should  only  be  separated  far  cnmrgh  to 
cause  them  to  stand  out  distinctly  for  easy  recognition  in 
reading.  Legibility  also  requires  the  distance  between  the 
lines  to  be  greater  than  that  between  the  words  in  the  same 
line. 


0  THE  SPACING  OF  LETTERS.  CHAP.  il. 

ART  26     TABLE  FOR  SPACING.  Roman  or  French  Old  Style.     In  preparing  one  for  the  Hair- 

A  table  for  spacing  Roman  and  Gothic  letters,  arranged  line  Antique  on  Plate  V  the  clear  distance  must  be  measured 

like  tne  following,  on!,  single  sheet  of  paper,  has  been  found  not  between  the  adjacent  vertical  construction  lines,  but 

tc The  so  convenient  that  it  is  inserted  here.     A  similar  one  between  the  ends  of  the  serifs,  since  the  serifs  are  as  prom- 
should  be  prepared  by  the  student  who  wishes  to  use  the 


HUMAN  CAPITALS. 

GOTHIC 

CAPITALS. 

II  v   the  modi- 
fied  average  of 

A     B    C     D     E     F 

G 

H       I 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E     F 

G 

H 

1 

area*    and    dis- 

•. •.         K    MM        M        H        K 

MM 

M 

HH 

H 

H        i 

tances. 

J       K     L      M      N     0 

I' 

Q      H           J 

K 

L 

M 

N     0 

P 

Q 

R 

M             K       H    M         MM     HH 

I 

MM          1           1H 

N 

8 

HH 

HH 

M 

S      T     U      V     W     X 

Y 

z             S 

T 

U 

V 

W    X 

Y 

Z 

MM     KK        M    KK     KK     MK 

MM 

MM                       MK 

1  ' 

',', 

KM 

KM       HK 

HH 

By     modified 
areas  only  on  a 

A     B    C     D     F     G 

K 

L      0 

A 

B 

C 

D 

F     G 

K 

L 

0 

basis  of  a  space 

1K1M       H    MI         K        1M     K 

1M 

2       K* 

I'l'1 

H 

HH 

H 

IK      HH 

MH 

mil    larger 

• 

than  the  above. 

I'       0       T        U       V       W 

X 

Y      Z          p 

0 

T 

U 

V    W 

X 

Y 

Z 

<     MK   1M1H  MM   1K1M   1M1H 

IMIM 

IKIH   i«i 

i 

HH 

,          '4'4 

''"'   '  ' 

''4  m, 

I'l  1'. 

ROMAN  SMALL. 

GOTHIC  SMALL. 

a       b       c       e       Tg*       r 

t 

a 

C        f 

r     s 

t 

MI     MM    MK    MM                    i 

•HI 

' 

i 

HH     H) 

HH 

Norm:—  The  remaining  letter*  have  the  same  spacing  guides  as  capitals  of  the  same  form. 
When  a  round  side  is  adjacent  to  the  right  »i<le  <if  *  or  either  »idc  "f  r,  w,  x,far  t,  subtract 

NOTE 

:  —  The  n 

maining  letters  have  the  Mime  spacing  guide*  i 
the  same  form. 

ift  capitals  of 

an  additional  half  unit  from  the  ipace  instead  ••(  using  the  method  of 

area*. 

•  See  text,    \ 

TITLES. 


CHAP,  III, 


CHAP.    III.     TITLES. 


ART.  27.     MAIN  TITLES. 

Every  separate  drawing  which  is  worth  making  and  pre- 
serving should  have  a  title  as  a  means  of  convenient  iden- 
tification while  in  use  and  of  reference  when  filed  away. 
Even  a  rough  sketch  which  may  be  used  only  for  a  few  days 
should  have  a  brief  title  marked  on  it  if  it  be  but  in  ordinary 
script.  The  draftsman  who  made  a  given  map  or  plan  may 
remember  it  for  some  time  without  such  an  aid,  but  other 
persons  must  often  handle  it,  and  in  an  office  where  there 
are  many  other  drawings  in  constant  use  it  is  necessary  to 
have  all  of  them  marked  so  that  any  one  may  know  what 
tney  are. 

The  amount  of  labor  which  is  expended  in  making  a  title 
should  be  proportioned  to  the  cost  of  the  drawing  and  to 
the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be  put.  Drawings  of  an  important 
project  which  are  to  be  shown  to  men  who  are  expected  to 
furnish  financial  means  for  its  execution,  il  they  can  be  favor- 
ably impressed,  are  usually  given  more  elaborate  titles  than 


those  which  are  made  either  before  or  during  'the  progress 
of  construction  for  the  use  of  the  office  arid  the  shops,  or  of 
the  contractor. 

Some  drawings,  like  the  standard  office  maps  of  a  large 
working  mine  or  of  a  city,  are  assumed  to  be  in  continued 
use  for  many  years  and,  therefore,  merit  more  care  in  their 
construction,  including  the  titles,  than  others  of  a  similar  type 
which  are  provided  for  merely  temporary  purposes. 

ART.  28.     CONTENTS  OF  THE  MAIN  TITLE. 

The  main  title  of  a  drawing  or  sketch  of  any  object  snouid 
contain  all  the  facts  which  it  is  essential  for  any  one  to  know 
who  will  have  occasion  to  study  or  refer  to  the  same,  not 
only  at  the  time  it  is  made  but  at  any  subsequent  period. 

The  first  item  usually  refers  to  the  kind  of  drawing,  speci- 
fying whether  it  is  a  sketch  map,  plan,  elevation,  section  or 
profile;  modifying  terms  being  frequently  employed  in  con- 
nection with  all  of  these  expressions.  For  instance,  a  man 


ART.  28. 


CONTENTS  OF  THE  MAIN  TITLE. 


in. iv  In-  designated  :is  an  index  map,  a  contour  map,  a 
topographical  map,  a  hvdrographic  map  or  u  railroad  map; 
tin-  plan  may  be  a  general  plan  or  a  detail  plan,  or  of  the 
first,  filth  or  twenty-third  floor  of  a  building;  the  elevation 
in. iv  Iv  a  liont.  rear  <>r  side  elevation,  an  l:ast,  West,  North 
ith  elevation,  or  a  sectional  elevation,  while  the  sec- 
tion or  piolil  mav  be  longitudinal  or  transverse.  If  the 
plan,  elevatioi.,  section,  etc.  or  any  combination  of  them, 
are  all  on  the  same  sheet  then  these  terms  are  omitted  from 
the  general  title  and  placed  as  sub-titles  under  the  corre- 
sponding parts  of  the  drawing. 

The  second  item  consists  of  the  name  or  designation  of 
the  object  represent  -d,  and  may  include  its  more  prominent 
part,  occupying  a  single  line,  together  with  subordinate 
teiim,  which  are  placed  in  uiie  or  more  subsequent  lines. 
This  portion  of  the  title  should  be  as  specific  as  possible, 
but  expiessed  as  biielly  as  mav  be  consistent  with  this  char- 
acter. 

The  third  item  relates  to  the  party  for  whom  the  work 
was  done,  and  may  be  a  private  person  or  firm,  a  corpora- 
tion or  a  government.  Sometimes  this  part  of  the  title  pre- 
cedes the  item  which  was  stated  above  as  generally  being 
the  first  one,  examples  of  this  arrangement  being  shown  in 
the  titles  on  Plates  XIV  and  XI.VI. 


The  fourth  item  gives  the  name  of  the  person,  firm  or  de- 
partment that  made  the  design  or  executed  the  work,  or 
h.id  responsible  charge  of  the  same.  If  the  work  is  exe- 
cuted by  contract  the  name  of  the  contractors  usually  d.K  s 
not  appear,  unless  the  drawing  refers  to  a  report  relating  to 
the  progress  of  the  work,  and  is  used  in  determining  the 
p.ivments  of  the  same.  The  draftsman's  name  should  ap- 
pear somewhere  on  the  sheet,  but  usually  not  in  the  title. 
Whenever  the  name  of  a  place  is  not  implied  in  the  state- 
ment of  the  data  in  any  of  the  three  preceding  items,  and  is 
essential  as  a  matter  of  information,  it  must  be  inserted 
separately. 

The  fifth  item  gives  the  date.  The  date  may  refer  to  • 
time  when  the  survey  was  made  for  the  map  or  when  '  • 
design  was  completed  or  approved,  or  the  period  dun.*  • 
which  the  construction  was  carried  on,  whose  progress  aiui 
results  are  shown.  The  date  when  the  drawing  is  finished 
or  published  is  but  seldom  inserted  in  the  title,  but  is  gen- 
erally marked  elsewhere  on  the  sheet,  as  will  be  indicated  in 
Art.  36. 

The  sixth  item  states  what  scale  was  employed  in  making 
thediawing  This  should  never  be  omitted  in  the  case  of 
any  drawing  made  by  means  of  a  scale  or  copied  from  an- 
other drawing  so  constructed. 


44 


TITLES. 


CHAP.  III. 


In  many  cases  another  item  forms  a  part  of  the  title,  and 
consists  of  one  or  more  notes  of  explanation  or  reference. 
If  the  data  in  the  fifth  item  would  otherwise  require  too 
much  space,  it  is  transferred  to  this  place  where  only  small 
letters  are  used.  If  subsequent  additions  or  changes  are 
made,  references  to  them  with  proper  dates  would  naturally 
be  added  to  these  notes. 

Titles  relating  to  a  variety  of  subjects  are  given  on  Plates 
XIV-XVIII,  XXXI,  XXXVI,  XLVI  and  XLVII.  The  student 
might  profitably  make  a  compilation  of  the  subject  matter 
of  a  number  of  titles,  test  them  by  the  statements  made  in 
this  article,  and  determine  whether  any  essential  fact  was 
omitted  when  the  purpose  is  considered  for  which  each  of  the 
corresponding  drawings  was  made.  The  first  item  may,  in 
the  case  of  a  map,  for  example,  be  regarded  as  not  essen- 
tial, since  the  character  of  the  drawing  is  supposed  to  be 
evident  to  any  one  who  may  consult  it. 

The  historical  and  legal  value  of  many  a  map,  chart  or 
other  drawing  has  been  materially  reduced  by  the  lack  of 
sufficient  information  in  its  title,  and  the  loss  of  money 
thereby  involved  in  single  instances  would  have  paid  for  a 
large  number  of  good  titles.  The  importance  of  this  subject 
demands  careful  attention  in  deciding  what  facts  are  really 
essential  in  any  case,  and  therefore  to  be  stated  in  the  title. 


ART.  29.     ONE- LINE  TITLES  OR  SUB-TITLES. 

Frequently  a  series  of  plates  may  have  the  same  general 
title,  while  each  one  in  the  set  has  its  own  special  title, 
which  may  be  arranged  in  a  single  line.  Sometimes  the 
main  title  occupies  either  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  first 
plate,  while  the  special  titles  for  each  sheet  occupy  a  line 
inside  of  the  lower  border.  At  other  times  a  general  head- 
ing, consisting  of  a  condensed  statement  of  the  subject  in 
the  main  title,  is  also  placed  on  each  sheet,  in  which  case  it 
occupies  a  place  just  outside  of  the  upper  border. 

The  height  of  the  letters  in  the  general  heading  may  range 
from  about  i^  to  2^  per  cent,  of  the  smaller  dimension  of 
the  border  and  those  in  the  special  title  may  be  from  two- 
thirds  to  seven-eighths  of  this  height.  The  corresponding 
average  values  may  be  taken  at  2  per  cent,  for  the  former 
and  three-fourths  for  the  latter  ratio.  The  height  of  sub- 
titles located  on  various  parts  of  thr>  sheet  must  be  less  yet, 
if  also  in  capitals,  or  they  may  be  put  in  small  letters.  These 
values  are  given  only  as  a  general  guide  to  the  student, 
whose  tendency  is  often  to  make  the  titles  too  large. 

On  Plate  XI  are  given  a  few  examples  of  such  titles.  The 
equivalent  space  between  the  letters  should  generally  be  3 
units,  but  sometimes  may  be  increased  to  3^,  and,  in  ex- 
ceptional cases,  to  4  units.  The  wide  spacing  aids  in  re- 


ART.  30 


POSITION  OF  MAIN  TITLE. 


ducincr  the  weight.     The  spacing  used  on   Plate  XI   was 
given  in  Art.  18. 

ART.    *..     1-oSITION  OF  MAIN  TITLE. 

When  consulting  a  drawing  which  lies  upon  the  table  the 
must  patur.il  place  to  look  lor  th«-  principal  title  is  at  the  tup 
of  the  sheet,  preferably  at  the  right  or  in  the  middle.  If  it  is 
infend-.'d  to  hang  on  the  wall  every  part  of  its  title  ought  to 
be  legible  from  the  most  favorable  position  at  which  the  ob- 
server could  conveniently  stand  on  the  floor.  If  the  title  is 
necessarily  small  it  should  be  nearly  at  the  height  of  the  eye 
when  the  chart  is  properly  hung.  In  large  maps  this  tes; 
would  bring  the  title  into  its  lower  part.  For  conveniently 
finding  a  sheet  in  a  drawer  by  means  of  its  title  it  must  be 
placed  at  the  bottom.  The  filing  of  drawings  will  be  re- 
ferred to  again  in  Art.  jfc. 

It  is  important,  however,  that  the  relation  of  the  title  to 
the  drawing  as  a  whole  should  be  such  as  to  make  a  good 
appearance.  Sometimes  the  form  of  the  drawing  is  such 
that  the  open  spaces  practically  fix  its  position  independent 
of  any  other  consideration.  The  principal  title  should  always 
l-e  inside  of  the  border  but  if  it  may  be  reduced  to  a  single 
line  and  there  is  no  convenient  place  for  it  inside,  u  may 


then  be  placed  at  the  top  of  the  sheet  just  outside  of  the 
borde.. 

Long  profiles  usually  have  no  border,  and  when  kept  in 
the  form  of  rolls  ought  to  have  a  title  at  each  end  so  as  to  be 
readily  accessible  without  regard  to  the  direction  in  which 
it  is  rolled  up.  Where  the  roll  is  narrow  the  titles  are  placed 
beyond  the  ends  of  the  drawing.  If,  however,  the  profiles 
are  kept  folded  in  book  form  one  title  will  answer  lor  each 
book. 

When  the  drawing  consists  of  several  parts  whose  relation 
O.T  the  sheet  is  not  determined  by  other  considerations,  they 
may  be  so  arranged  as  to  allow  the  place  of  the  title  to  satisfy 
one  or  more  of  the  preceding  conditions. 

ART.   11.     PROPORTIONING  A  TITLb. 

The  form  of  the  available  space  for  the  title  frequently  de- 
termines the  approximate  relation  between  its  height  and 
width.  If  not,  then  the  contents  of  the  title,  when  divided 
into  lines,  will  indicate  whether  a  wide  or  narrow  form  (as 
compared  with  its  height)  is  preferable. 

On  Plate  XII  is  given  an  outline  plan  of  a  title  which  con- 
tains seventeen  lines  besides  the  group  of  eighteen  lines  of 
references,  at  the  bottom,  to  the  ;>uthoritjes  used  in  preparing 


TITLES. 


CHAP.  Dl. 


the  map.     its  subject-matter,  divided  and  numbered  to  cor- 
respond with  the  lines  on  the  plate,  is  as  follows  : 

5Map  of  aThe  Alluvial  Valley  |  3of  the  |  JVtississippi  River 
|  5from  the  |  6Head  of  St.  Francis  Basin  |  7to  the  |  8Gulf  of 
Mexico  |  ,Showing  Lands  Subject  to  Overflow,  |  10Location 
of  Levees  and  Trans-Alluvial  Profiles.  [  nPublished  by  the  | 
^Mississippi  River  Commission  |  13i887  uScale=i :  316,800, 
or  |  i6One  Inch=5  Miles  16Scale  of  Miles  j  ^Authorities. 

The  object  represented  is  specified  in  lines  2  to  10  in- 
clusive, the  last  two  containing  statements  showing  the  limi- 
tations of  the  map  as  well  as  its  prominent  features.  The 
well-known  name  of  the  Commission  given  in  line  12  im- 
plies that  the  map  was  made  for  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment, and  the  names  of  those  under  whose  direction  and  by 
whom  the  various  surveys,  which  furnish  the  necessary  data, 
were  made,  as  well  as  the  names  of  those  connected  with 
the  office  reduction  and  mapping,  together  with  the  corre- 
sponding dates,  are  all  given  in  the  list  of  authorities  at  the 
bottom  of  the  title.  Every  essenti.il  item  of  information 
specified  in  Art.  28  is  given  in  this  title. 

The  area  of  the  rectangles  shows  approximately  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  the  different  lines  as  determined  by  the 
draftsman,  EDWARD  MOLITOK.  It  is  said  "approximately," 
because  the  weight  and  spacing  of  the  letters  (which  are  not 


shown)  are  other  factors  affecting  the  prominence  of  the 
lines.  All  the  letters  in  the  title  are  open  and  shaded  except 
those  in  lines  9,  10  and  from  14  to  the  end,  which  are  soiid. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  no  two  successive  lines  have  the  same 
length,  and  that  if  a  curve  were  freely  drawn  through  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  lines,  excepting  a  few  of  the  short  ones  lying 
between  much  longer  lines,  its  form  would  be  a  pleasing 
one. 

The  measurements  marked  on  the  plate  are  those  of  the 
original  expressed  in  millimeters.  The  border  of  the  map 
is  9'  11"  high  and  /  9-  wide,  or  5.023  by  1.143  meters. 
The  height  of  the  largest  letters  (in  line  4)  is  2/^  per  cent, 
of  the  smaller  dimension  of  the  map  border.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed that  the  distances  between  the  lines  are  not  all  equal. 
The  influence  of  a  very  short  line  like  7  is  made  to  separate 
6  and  8,  not  quite  45  per  cent,  more  than  ihe  distance  be- 
tween 8  and  9,  which  are  both  long  lines,  while  the  more 
prominent  lines  2  and  4  are  separated  less  than  25  per  cent. 
more  than  i  and  2. 

After  these  preliminary  observations  of  a  published  title 
let  it  now  be  required  to  design  one  for  a  plate  in  this  book 
as  an  illustration,  and  containing  the  following  statement, 
which  is  used  by  permission  of  the  Engineer  Department 
named: 


ART. 


PROPORTIONING  A  TITLE. 


47 


M;ip  of  tin-  T.itv   of  Washington,  showing  the 
Vaiieties  oi  .ven  ents  laid  and   under  con- 

tr.ict  on  J:m.  i,  iSgs.  To  accompany  the  Annual 
Report  of  the  I  ngineer  Department,  District  of 
Columbia. 

First,  let  I  he  contents  be  sep.ir:ited  into  lines  and  their  rela- 
tive prominence  determined.  As  the  plate  is  wider  than  its 
height  the  lines  must  be  made  lunger  than  otherwise. 
"Otv  nf  Washington  "  is  easily  selected  as  the  most  prom- 
inent line,  and  will  be  made  longer  and  higher  than  any 
other.  "  Varieties  of  Street  Pavement  "  comes  next  in  order, 
.md  although  it  contains  60  per  cent,  more  letters,  the  line 
should  be  a  little  shorter  and  not  so  high  as  "City  of  Wash- 
H."  "  Laid  and  under  contract  on  Jan.  i,  1895,"  will 
I-  k  best  if  all  in  one  line  and  having  still  more  letters  than 
the  preceding  one.  as  well  as  tor  the  sake  of  variety,  is 
pteterably  put  in  small  or  lower-case  letters.  "I- ngineer 
Department "  and  "District  of  Columbia  "  should  both  be 
prominent,  although  less  so  than  "  Varieties  of  Street  Pave- 
ment." and  if  placed  in  one  line  will  make  it  too  long  to  give 
a  good  form  to  the  title  as  a  whole.  Again,  the  most  prom- 
inent line  should  not  be  too  near  the  top.  and  both  of  these 
conditions  may  be  avoided  by  placing  "District  of  Colum- 
bia "  at  the  top  of  the  title  and  "Engineer  Department  "  in 


a  line  by  itself.  "To  accompany  the  Annual  Report  "  ought 
to  be  a  little  shorter  than  "  l-.ngineer  Department,"  if  it  can 
be  done  without  making  the  letters  too  diminutive.  Small 
letters  are  the  best  for  this  line  also,  and  should  be  consider- 
ably less  in  size  than  those  in  the  line  preceding  it.  As  the 
number  of  lines  must  be  kept  down,  "Map  of  the  "  will  In- 
put in  one  line,  and  having  but  tew  letters,  will  be  consider- 
ably shorter  than  "District  of  Columbia."  To  secure  more 
prominent  e.  it  may  be  given  slightly  higher  letters.  Since 
"Showing  the"  lies  between  the  most  important  lines  and 
forms  a  subordinate  part  of  the  principal  subject,  it  will  be 
better  to  put  it  in  capitals  than  small  letters.  The  arrange- 
ment of  lines  and  of  capitals  and  small  letters  is  shown  mi 
Plate  XIV. 

As  an  aid  in  considering  these  points  the  title  was  written 
in  script  and  disposed  in  lines  which  were  later  moJitied  as 
indicated  above.  At  the  same  time  a  sketch  wasmadeona 
sheet  of  common  flat  paper  like  the  plan  on  Plate  XII  by  be- 
ginning at  the  top  and  estimating  the  si/e  and  spacing  of  the 
rectangles  by  eye.  It  was  found  that  the  height  was  a  little 
too  large  and  that  either  the  height  of  letters  in  the  spacing 
of  lines  or  both  must  be  somewhat  reduced. 

If  the  form  of  the  area  for  the  title  were  square  the  same 
division  into  lines  would  answer,  provided  the  letters  were 


48 


TITLES. 


CHAP.  III. 


relatively  more  condensed  and  the  lines  spaced  a  little  farther 
apart.  If  on  the  other  hand  the  area  were  high  and  narrow, 
like  that  of  the  title  on  Plate  XII,  it  would  necessitate  a  new 
division  of  lines,  perhaps  as  follows: 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

MAP  OF 

THF.  CITY  OF 

WASHINGTON 

showing 

THE  VARIETIES  OF 

STRF.ET    PAVEMENTS 

Laid  and  under  contract  on 

Jan.    i,    1895. 

To  accompany 

the  Annual  Report  of  the 

ENGINEER  DEPARTMENT. 

Scale  of  feet. 

In  this  form  most  of  the  letters  would  have  the  normal 
proportion,  while  a  few  of  them  would  probably  be  extended. 
The  comparative  lengths  of  lines  will  not  be  discussed  for 
this  form  of  title  and  no  attempt  was  made  to  show  any 
relative  difference  in  the  above  copy  by  spacing  the  type. 

A  small  title  with  sturdy  letters  usually  looks  better  than 


a  larger  one  with  letters  approaching  the  hair-line  type. 
While  on  one  hand  a  title  should  not  by  its  prominence 
overshadow  the  drawing  itself,  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  the 
other  extreme  of  making  the  title  so  small  as  to  require 
searching  for  it.  The  latter  condition  is  liable  to  occur  in  a 
large  drawing  of  details  where  the  plate  is  rather  crowded 
with  lines,  letters  and  figures,  and  the  open  space  left  for  the 
title  is  rather  small. 

ART.    32.     DETERMINING   THE   LETTERING   SCALES. 

In  order  to  complete  the  proportioning  of  the  title  which 
was  begun  in  the  preceding  article  and  to  lay  out  the  plan 
to  scale,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  scale  to  be  used  in 
locating  the  letters  in  every  one  of  the  lines.  Let  the  scale 
be  obtained  for  line  }  of  the  title  (Plate  XIV).  The  letters 
are  written  on  a  slip  of  paper  as  shown  in  Fig.  20.  Their 
widths  are  marked  beneath  the  letters 


CITY    OF 


WASHINGTON 

10X       5X        5        5         1      I*      b%      i>X        6        4>£ 

X        l\    I*      3     2X      2tf      1»      1*     2« 
Fig.  20. 


and  below  the  spaces  between  these  numbers  are  placed  the 
distances  between  the  adjacent  construction  lines  of  the 
letters  obtained  by  means  of  the  table  in  Art.  26.  As  the 


ART.   u 


DETERMINING  THE  l.K  ITHRING  SCAI  1  S. 


capitals  ('.  aiul  W  are  one-third  higher  than  the  other  letters 
their  measurement*  aie  increased  in  the  same  ratio,  thus  re- 
ducing all  the  letters  to  the  same  scale.  The  equivalent 
spaces  are  }  lor  the  letters  .uul  s  for  the  words.  The  former 
is  adopted  instead  of  2%  to  aid  in  extending  the  length  of 
the  line.  The  space  between  W  and  A  was  modified  ft 
unit,  since  W  extends  smne  distance  above  the  upper  guide 
line  <>l  A.  Adding  these  quantities  their  sum  is  found  to  be 
I2?#.  It  's  Ilow  required  to  find  the  length  of  10  units,  as 
this  is  a  good  length  for  a  scale.  This  can  be  done  con- 
veniently with  the  aid  of  the  diagram  on  Plate  XIII.  A  strip 
of  paper  is  taken  and  the  length  of  the  line  as  given  by  the 
sketch  (not  shown),  referred  to  in  the  last  article,  marked  on 
it.  As  the  diagram  on  the  left  of  the  plate  extends  only  to 
60  units,  the  above  quantity  may  be  divided  by  three  and 
when  the  strip  is  in  position  with  the  left  end  on  the  zero 
line  and  the  right  at  41  #  the  length  of  3  units  is  marked  off. 
This  length  represents  3x^=9  units  of  the  required  scale,  and 
by  using  the  diagram  on  the  right  of  the  plate  all  the  divisions 
of  the  scale  may  be  marked  with  a  well-pointed  pencil. 

A  draftsman  can  make  his  own  diagram  of  much  larger 
M/e  and  number  of  divisions  on  a  sheet  of  cardboard  to  be 
kept  in  a  convenient  position  for  reference.  The  form  oi  an 
isosceles  triangle  would  be  better  than  the  one  given  on 


the  plate,  which  was  accommodated  to  the  available  space. 

With  this  scale  the  height  of  the  letter  can  be  marked  as  a 
full  number  of  units.  It  was  found  that  (i  units  gave  a  height 
which  was  nearly  equal  to  that  on  the  sketch,  and  was 
adopted. 

In  the  same  manner  the  scales  are  found  and  the  heights. 
expressed  in  units,  marked  on  the  sketch.  It  it  is  found  that 
the  heights  show  more  variation  than  is  desirable,  they  are 
modified  and  after  this  is  done  the  plan  can  be  drawn  to 
scale  on  the  plate  with  each  line  in  its  final  position.  The 
heights  of  the  letters  in  the  various  lines  (Plate  XIV)  aie  7. 
7-  b.  6,  7,  7,  7,  6.  7  and  6,  respectively.  At  first  a  few  were 
maiked  8,  but  were  changed  afterward. 

Sometimes  slight  changes  in  length  may  be  secured  In 
changing  the  equivalent  space,  remembering,  howexer,  th.M 
a  wide  space  does  not  look  well  when  used  with  letters  that 
are  considerably  condensed.  As  a  rule  the  only  equivalent 
spaces  to  be  employed  in  principal  titles  are  either  2l/j  or  3 
units,  or  both.  The  spaces  used  in  this  tille  are  3  except  in 
the  lirst  and  fifth  lines,  where  they  were  reduced  to  2J4  units. 

The  stems  are  one  unit  wide  except  in  "City  of  Wash- 
ington," where  the  width  is  #  of  a  unit. 

The  length  of  a  line  expressed  in  the  units  of  its  scale  ma  v 
be  very  closely  approximated  in  the  following  manner  for 


TITLES. 


CHAP.  III. 


capital  letters:  Count  all  the  letters,  and  to  the  number  add 
y*  for  each  W  and  subtract  Y-Z  for  each  I  ;  add  ys  for  every 
large  capital  (when  used  in  connection  with  small  capitals) 
and  %  for  each  space  between  words,  and  multiply  the  sum 
by  the  equivalent  space  when  increased  by  4.  Applying 
this  rule  to  the  same  line  as  before  (Fig.  20)  its  length  is 
found  to  be 


This  rule  has  been  applied  to  a  large  number  of  examples, 
and  the  difference  is  very  rarely  as  large  as  five  or  six  units. 
If  the  number  of  letters  in  a  line  is  small  and  the  scale  large, 
it  is  best  to  use  the  method  first  given  when  the  length  is 
also  fixed,  but  in  most  cases  the  approximate  method  is  suffi- 
ciently close. 

For  small  letters,  either  Roman  or  Gothic,  the  same 
method  may  be  applied,  counting  m  and  w  as  i/4,  and  i 
and  1  as  %,  adding  )4  for  each  capital  and  i  for  spaces  be- 
tween words.  If  the  same  multiplier  is  used  as  for  capitals, 
the  result  varies  a  little  more  from  the  actual  measurement 
in  some  cases,  and  usually  falls  below.  The  difference, 
however,  rarely  exceeds  five  per  cent,  in  lines  of  reasonable 
length. 

Let  the  student  compute  the  lengths  of  the  other  lines  on 


Plate  XIV,  as  well  as  some  on  other  plates,  and  satisfy  him- 
self as  to  its  utility. 

When  small  letters  are  employed,  reduce  the  width  of  the 
capital  at  the  beginning  of  any  word  to  the  scale  of  the 
small  letters  by  multiplying  it  by  ion-6,  and  remember  the 
statement  in  Art.  22  to  make  the  space  between  the  capital 
and  small  letter  the  same  as  if  both  letters  were  small. 

ART.  33.     THE  CONSTRUCTION  COMPLETED. 

The  next  step  is  to  take  each  line  of  the  title  in  regular 
order,  and,  by  means  of  its  scale,  to  lay  off  the  measure- 
ments, like  those  in  Fig.  20,  on  the  upper  edge  of  a  strip  of 
paper,  which  is  then  placed  with  this  edge  adjacent  to  the 
lower  side  of  the  rectangle  that  the  line  is  to  occupy,  and 
properly  centered.  The  straight  edge  being  placed  upon 
the  lower  part  of  the  paper  strip  to  hold  it  in  position,  the 
construction  lines  of  the  letters  are  readily  drawn  in  the 
rectangle  by  means  of  a  small  triangle.  Line  4  of  Plate 
XII  shows  the  construction  lines  for  the  letters  in  "  Missis- 
sippi River"  in  position,  and  the  scale  is  shown  on  the  left 
directly  below  the  edge.  As  a  guard  against  mistakes  in 
laying  off  the  measurements,  it  is  well  to  write  the  letters 
under  the  corresponding  positions  as  each  word  is  com- 
pleted. 


ART. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  COMPI.I  1 1  I). 


The  center  of  a  line  consisting  of  one  or  more  w  >rds  is  not 
generally  midway  between  the  outer  coiistiuction  lines  ol 
tin-  extreme  letters.  Init  midway  between  their  outer  spacing 
guides. 

The  iuvess.it  v  intermedi.ite  guide  lines  are  then  drawn 
and  the  letters  completed  in  pencil  in  the  usu.il  wav. 

The  middle  diagram  t>n  Plate  XIII  is  convenient  in  locating 
any  two  of  the  lour  principal  guide  lines  for  the  small  letters 
when  the  other  two  are  given.  When  the  scale  is  quite 
small  oiilv  these  lour  lines  need  to  be  used. 

It  may  appear  as  it  the  method  of  construction  which  has 
been  outlined  in  this  chapter  would  require  more  time  than 
the  customary  plan  ol  sketching  the  letteis  in  pencil  and 
erasing  and  shifting  them  until  a  satisfactory  result  is  secured. 
I  his.  however,  is  not  the  case,  but  after  the  draftsman 
has  thoioughly  fixed  the  method  in  mind  by  several  applica- 
tions in  practice  he  can  save  considerable  time  over  that 
which  would  be  needed  by  the  usual  plan  to  secuie  even 
approximately  as  good  a  result.  It  is  possible  by  this  method 
to  construct  the  entire  title  in  pencil  without  the  erasure  <»r 
change  in  position  of  a  single  letter,  as  indeed  was  the  case 
in  nearly  all  of  the  titles  prepared  for  this  text-book. 


ART.  ;4.     HXAMI'U-S  OF  TITLES. 

From  the  preceding  description  of  the  design  of  a  title,  it 
is  observed  that  a  number  of  conditions  have  to  be  met  and 
harmonized  in  order  to  secure  an  excellent  elfect.  Not  only 
must  the  individual  letters  be  well  proportioned  and  spaced, 
but  the  lines  ol  the  title  must  be  carefully  dimensioned,  and 
spaced  both  with  reference  to  their  own  contents  as  well  as 
their  relation  to  the  adjacent  lines  and  to  the  form  of  the  title 
as  a  whole.  If  the  tnle  contains  a  small  amount  ol  matter 
and  the  available  space  for  ii  is  comparatively  large,  the  lines 
and  letters  may  be  given  a  wider  or  more  open  spacing  than 
when  the  conditions  .lie  reversed.  Another  important  ele- 
ment affecting  the  appearance  is  the  style  ol  letter  employed. 
As  the  influence  ol  these  several  elements  can  best  1  esiudied 
from  illustrations,  a  number  of  examples  besides  the  one 
alieady  given  are  inserted  in  the  work  and  shown  on  Plates 
XV-XVIII,  XXXI,  XXXVI,  Xl.VI  and  XLVII. 

Plate  XV  contains  a  title  taken  by  permission  from  a  map 
whose  border  measures  =,'  s  high  by  4'  =,"  wide,  which, 
together  with  another  map  of  the  same  si/e  on  "  Drainage" 
and  a  portfolio  of  plates  exhibiting  preliminary  cons'; uction 
plans  and  details,  was  prepared  to  accompany  a  report  on  the 


TITLES. 


CHAP.   III. 


Sewerapre  of  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  These  drawings  were  executed 
in  commendable  style  and  the  lettering  throughout  was  in 
harmony  with  the  character  of  the  other  work.  In  redraw- 
ing the  general  form  and  style  of  the  title,  the  dimensions 
and  spacing  of  the  lines  were  practically  unchanged,  but  the 
letters  were  proportioned  and  spaced  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  given  in  Chapters  I  and  II.  The  height  of  the  letters 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  title  are  6,  6,  7,  7,  7,  7,  6  and  6;  in 
the  middle  6,  7,  7,  6,  6  and  7 ;  and  the  word  "  Explanations  " 
also  7  units.  The  equivalent  spaces  are  2^/z  units  except  in 
the  line  "  City  of  Ithaca,"  where  they  are  3  units  wide.  No 
large  capitals  are  used  in  the  upper  part,  but  in  three  of  the 
lines  the  letters  in  the  connecting  words  are  two-thirds  as 
high  as  those  in  the  remaining  more  prominent  terms.  The 
title  as  here  published  is  one-third  of  the  scale  of  the  original. 
Other  features  are  apparent  without  further  explanation. 

The  title  on  Plate  XVI  is  taken  from  the  detail  drawing  of 
the  design  of  a  connecting  rod  whose  border  is  about  25  by 
39  inches,  and  which  was  kindly  furnished  by  Mr.  Leavitt 
for  this  purpose.  The  title  was  treated  in  about  the  same 
manner  as  the  preceding  one,  that  is,  the  general  style  and 
arrangements  are  substantially  the  same  as  on  the  original,  but 
the  letters  were  constructed  and  spaced  in  accordance  with 
the  methods  given  in  Arts.  9  and  24.  It  thus  serves  the 


double  purpose  of  indicating  the  style  of  title  which  is  con- 
sidered as  especially  appropriate  for  drawings  of  a  similar 
character  to  that  from  which  this  is  taken  and  as  a  more  ex- 
tensive illustration  of  the  effect  of  constructing,  spacing  and 
grouping  Gothic  letters  than  was  furnished  in  preceding 
plates.  The  title  is  the  same  size  as  the  original.  The  fol- 
.lowing  lines  have  a  height  of  6  units:  "Cambridge  Water 
Works,"  "Cylinders,  etc.,"  Scale  and  Date,  E.  D.  LEAVITT, 
Mechanical  Engineer,  and  3294.  The  rest  have  a  height  of 
7  units.  The  stems  are  mainly  y-z,  but  a  few  are  24,  as  in 
"Connecting  Rod,"  while  the  equivalent  spaces  are  2% 
units  throughout. 

The  attention  of  the  student  is  called  to  the  fact  that  only 
a  single  style  of  letter  is  used  in  each  of  the  titles  on  Plates 
XIV  and  XVI,  and  by  comparing  them  with  each  other  the 
individuality  of  each  style  may  be  observed.  By  comparing 
them  with  titles,  which  may  be  found  in  any  considerable 
collection  of  drawings  or  of  some  books  on  lettering,  in 
which  a  number  of  styles  (sometimes  equal  to  the  number 
of  lines)  are  combined  in  a  single  title,  it  may  be  apparent 
how  much  of  the  general  effect  is  due  to  the  elements  of 
simplicity  and  unity. 

Title  No.  i  on  Plate  XVII  is  designed  to  show  the  ap- 
pearance when  Roman  small  letters  are  used  exclusively, 


ART.    34. 


I  \  AMl'l  is  OF  TITLES. 


and  No.  2  of  one  in  which  stump  writing  is  employed 
throughout.  In  the  former  the  heights  of  letters  are 
7,  6,  6,  6,  7  and  7  and  in  the  Litter  7,  6,  6,  6  and  7.  In  the 

lornu-r  tlu-  equivalent  spaces  an-  .ill  2'j  units  wide  and  in 
the  latter  the  spacing  conforms  to  that  recommended  in 
Art.  2}.  Both  i>l  these  titles  of  diagrams  accompanied  re- 
poit>  and  thetvt<>re  do  not  contain  all  the  items  usually  found- 
in  a  principal  title. 

Titles  Nos.  )  and  4  on  the  same  plate  were  constiucted 
to  illustrate  the  use  of  the  inclined  and  upright  Gothic  letters 
drawn  tree-hand,  alter  the  outer  construction  lines  for  the 
letters  of  ;he  principal  lines  were  located  as  explained  in 
Art.  ;2.  "  Allegheny  Vallev  Railroad  "  is  q  units,  "Illinois 
Central  K.  K.  Depot,  etc.."  isSJi  units  and  "Diagram"  is  s 
units  high,  the  remaining  lines  being  <>  and  7  units  in  height. 
The  originals  of  these  titles  were  used  on  regular  working 
drawings.  These  plates  serve  also  to  indicate  the  differ- 
ence between  the  general  effect  of  upright  and  inclined  let- 
I'he  slope  of  the  letters  in  No.  2  is  a  base  of  3,  while 
that  in  No.  3  is  a  base  of  2 '4  to  a  height  of  8  units. 

On  Plate  XVIII  are  shown  several  titles  and  parts  of  titles 
for  architectural  drawings.  The  styles  of  letters  employed 
will  be  described  more  fully  in  Art.  46.  It  will  be  noticed, 
however,  that  most  of  the  letters  are  of  the  "  high-waistcd  " 


type  and  all  of  them  were  drawn  free-hand  after  the  hori- 
zontal guide  lines  and  the  vertical  spacing  guides  in  pencil 
were  located.  In  the  second  title,  on  the  left  of  the  plate, 
the  heights  of  the  letters  are  i  ,  9,  8,  8,  9,  6  and  7,  respect- 
ively, a  variety  of  heights  that  would  not  be  allowable  in 
some  styles  of  letters. 

If,  on  account  of  lack  of  space,  or  for  any  other  reason,  it 
is  decided  to  use  small  letters  in  the  principal  line  of  a  title, 
then  they  should  be  employed  throughout. 

Plate  XXVIII  contains  an  admirable  title,  taken  from  a 
chart  prepared  at  one  of  the  offices  of  the  United  States  1  n- 
gineer  Corps.  Although  the  title  is  a  little  too  large  to  look 
well  within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  plates  adopted  for  this 
book,  it  was  decided  to  reproduce  it  the  same  sixe  as  in  Un- 
published chart.  It  affords  an  excellent  study  in  propor- 
tioning a  title,  and  was  made  bv  the  same  draftsman  who 
designed  Plate  XXIV  and  whose  plan  of  a  title  was  given 
on  Plate  XII.  The  letters  are  formed  with  great  care  and 
the  small  letters  are  round  and  open  in  shape,  thus  giving 
them  a  high  degree  of  legibility.  The  letters  in  "  Lake  Su- 
perior" have  a  height  of  6%  units  and  stems  <>..x  unit  in 
width. 

It  would  seem  as  if  it  were  desirable  to  adopt  some 
standard  lettering  for  all  the  published  charts  of  the  Corps 


TITLES. 


CHAP.  HI. 


of  Engineers,  as  in  the  other  departments  mentioned  in  Arts. 
43  and  44.  At  present  the  annual  report  of  the  Chief  of 
Engineers  shows,  perhaps,  a  greater  variety  of  styles  on  its 
plates  than  any  other  similar  publication. 

ART.  35.     EXPLANATORY  NOTES. 

Notes  of  explanation,  of  reference  to  authorities,  or  relat- 
ing to  conventional  signs,  are  needed  on  many  drawings  and 
especially  on  maps.  Frequently  such  memoranda  form  the 
lower  part  of  the  title,  but  sometimes  additional  notes, 
which  relate  only  to  certain  parts  of  the  drawing,  are  placed 
adjacent  to  them.  The  addition  of  minor  explanations  in 
connection  with  the  drawing  of  some  details  not  only  puts 
them  in  the  most  serviceable  position,  but  obviates  the  ne- 
cessity for  incorporating  the  same  in  the  specifications. 

The  title  on  Plate  XV  has  some  notes  of  explanation,  and 
that  on  Plate  XXXVI  gives  a  list  of  the  authorities  used  in 
preparing  the  map.  On  Plate  XIX  are  given  a  number  of 
notes,  most  of  which  relate  to  details.  The  first  two  in  the 
second  column  are  taken  from  the  same  drawing  of  a  design 
as  the  title  on  Plate  XVI. 

Plate  XIX  gives  a  variety  of  styles  of  letters  which  are 
suitable  for  this  purpose,  but  it  is  important  to  remember 
that  the  style  selected  should  always  harmonize  with  that  of 


the  letters  employed  in  the  title  and  sub-titles,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  be  appropriate  to  the  subject  represented  and 
the  general  character  of  the  drawing. 

Stump  writing  is  most  generally  employed  for  notes  in 
titles  containing  Roman  letters.  Roman  small  would  be 
preferable,  but  their  construction  requires  so  much  more 
labor  as  rarely  to  justify  their  use.  The  style  employed  in 
the  fifth  note  of  the  second  column  is  similar  to  the  Roman 
small,  but  as  its  strokes  are  of  uniform  thickness  it  is  more 
easily  and  quickly  constructed.  The  inclined  Gothic  small 
letters  permit  a  more  rapid  execution  than  any  other  style 
and  are  especially  appropriate  for  engineers'  working  draw- 
ings. Slight  differences  of  inclination  are  not  apparent. 
With  some  practice  the  corresponding  upright  letters,  which 
have  a  more  dignified  appearance,  can  be  made  with  nearly 
the  same  facility.  As  the  scale  is  so  small,  all  the  lettering 
in  notes  must  be  done  free-hand.  The  legibility  of  such 
memoranda  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and,  therefore, 
only  slight  modifications  of  form  are  allowable  for  the  sake 
of  artistic  display. 

By  inspecting  this  plate  some  minor  modifications  in  the 
styles  of  several  letters  will  be  noticed,  which  are  introduced 
either  for  the  sake  of  variety  or  for  facilitating  construction. 
Special  attention  is  called  to  the  last  line  on  the  plate. 


ART.  36. 


AUXILIARIES  TO  Till  Is 


Additional  notes  printed  from  type  are  given  on  Plate 
XI. VIII  to  show  their  comparative  appearance  when  differ- 
ent Stvles  of  type  are  employed. 

ART.   #.— AUXILIARII  S  TO  Hills. 

Drawings  should  usually  contain  the  following  informa- 
tion in  addition  to  the  regular  titles:  the  name  of  the  drafts- 
man, the  date  of  completion,  th  number  I"  the  plate,  if 
there  are  more  than  one  belonging  to  the  same  project,  and 
a  releii tu i-  or  index  number. 

It  is  frequently  of  considerable  imp.  nance  to  know  who 
executed  the  drawing,  but  in  addition  to  the  information 
conveyed  to  others  bv  the  name  of  the  draftsman,  it  is  to 
him  an  incentive  to  the  exercise  of  increased  care  and  skill, 
and  intensities  his  recognition  of  responsibility.  In  well 
mixed  ollices.  where  many  detail  drawings  of  designs 
are  made,  it  is  customary  to  record  on  each  sheet  the  name, 
or  its  initials,  of  the  one  who  checked  the  dimensions  and 
other  details  shown  on  the  drawing,  as  well  as  that  of  tl.e 
draftsman  A  convenient  place  for  the  name  is  on  the  in- 
side of  the  lower  right-hand  corner  of  the  border,  and  it 
should  always  be  drawn  to  a  very  small  scale,  say  about 
the  size  of  the  explanatory  notes  in  the  title. 

The  date  of  the  completion  of  the  drawing  may  be  placed 


55 


in  the  corresponding  position  at  the  lower  lelt-l-.;,nd  corner. 

Long  established  usage  has  put  the  number  of  the  plate 
or  chart  on  the  outside  of  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of 
the  border.  Sometimes  the  number  of  a  sheet  is  made  a 
part  of  the  title,  but  it  is  questionable  whether  this  is  as  con- 
venient, since  titles  cannot  generally  be  placed  in  the  same 
relative  position.  If,  as  frequently  occurs  with  student 
drawings,  the  plates  rel.iting  to  any  given  course  have  their 
own  separate  titles,  which  are  not  necessarily  related  to 
each  other  as  the  special  and  general  titles  referred  to  in  Ait. 
2Q.  the  subject  of  the  course  may  be  appropriately  placed 
near  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  the  border  and  adjacent 
to  it  on  the  upper  side.  The  si/e  of  the  letters  employed 
depends  on  the  size  of  the  plate  and  the  relative  width  of 
the  margin  outside  of  the  bolder. 

When  the  drawings  in  an  office  are  indexed  by  means  of 
cards  or  some  other  form  of  index,  each  drawing  is  given  a 
number  denoting  its  location  in  the  filing  cases,  and  this  is 
placed  as  a  reference  number  on  the  card  containing  its  title, 
together  with  any  other  description  which  may  be  consid- 
ered necessary.  This  index  number  may  be  placed  inside 
of  the  border  at  its  lower  left-hand  corner,  near  the  date 
which  is  already  located  there.  The  date  is  naturally  in 
very  small  letters  and  numerals,  while  the  index  number  is 


TITLES. 


CHAP.  111. 


much  more  prominent.  The  number  3294  on  PUite  XVI 
was  that  of  the  drawing  whose  title  is  there  given.  The 
letters  H.  M.  G.  within  the  C  directly  above  this  number, 
give  the  initials  of  the  draftsman  who  checked  the  tracing, 
and  a  similar  record  occurs  also  on  the  original  drawing. 

Different  standards  relating  to  these  minor  and  yet  impor- 
tant details  of  a  drawing  are  adopted  in  different  offices,  but 
their  treatment  as  given  above  is  that  which  in  the  main 
accords  with  the  best  practice. 

On  Plate  XXXIV  are  shown  the  data  placed  at  the  corners 
of  the  charts  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  since  these 
have  no  place  for  a  title,  and  it  is  necessary  that  the  name 
of  the  Survey  and  of  the  authorities  and  the  date  should  be 
given  briefly  and  grouped  in  convenient  form.  The  sheets 
are  named  instead  of  numbered,  as  sheets  are  issued  simul- 
taneously for  different  sections  of  the  country,  while  those 
for  adjoining  territory  are  often  published  some  years  apart. 

ART.   •)-].    SCALES. 

As  stated  in  Art.  28,  the  scale  which  is  used  in  construc- 
tion should  always  be  mentioned  on  the  drawing.  A  por- 
tion of  the  scale  is  preferably  drawn  on  the  sheet  in  addi- 
tion to  the  usual  statement  of  the  relation  which  its  graph- 
ical representation  bears  to  the  object.  This  is  usually  done 


in  all  carefully  finished  drawings.  It  is  a  convenience  to 
be  able  to  use  the  dividers  in  connection  with  it  in  finding 
distances  or  lengths  when  the  draftsman's  scale  may  not  be 
available. 

When  a  drawing  is  to  be  used  also  for  reproduction  by 
any  of  the  usual  photo-mechanical  processes,  only  the 
drawing  of  the  scale  should  be  placed  on  it  if,  as  is  usually 
the  case,  the  reproduction  is  to  be  of  a  different  size  from 
the  original;  or,  the  desired  ratio  of  the  scale  of  the  repro- 
duction may  be  marked  on  a  separate  piece  of  paper  and 
temporarily  attached  to  the  sheet  while  it  is  being  photo- 
graphed. 

A  number  of  scales  of  different  sizes  and  styles  are  shown 
on  Plate  XX.  Sometimes  as  many  as  three  scales  are  drawn 
on  a  single  chart,  as,  for  example,  the  scales  of  feet,  of 
meters  and  of  statute  miles.  Three  scales  are  shown  on 
Plate  XXXI.  Scales  of  feet  and  meters,  or  of  miles  and  kilo- 
meters, should  be  more  frequently  associated  than  is  now 
customary.  Another  of  the  examples  given  is  for  a  sheet 
containing  both  the  general  plan  and  details,  each  having  its 
own  scale.  Sometimes  a  plan  and  sections  of  different 
scales  may  be  on  the  same  sheet.  In  the  case  of  a  profile 
constructed  without  the  use  of  profile  paper,  it  is  necessary 
to  state  both  the  vertical  and  horizontal  scales.  There  may 


ART.  38. 


MERIDIANS 


ilcs  of  moments,  of  shears.  and  of  lengths,  all  on  the 
same  sheet.  The  unit  employed  in  each  case  should  always 
be  cle.irly  slated.  The  large  scale  near  the  middle  of  the 
plate  is  of  a  kind  which  is  placed  on  the  sheet  in  order  that 
ii  may  expand  and  contract  with  the  paper  under  the  in- 
llueiue  of  atmospheric  changes  while  the  map  is  being 
plotted. 

XV.'tkinu  drawings  generally  contain  only  the  statement 
<.f  the  scale,  as  all  the  essential  measurements  are  plainly 
in. nked  on  them,  and  as  the  necess.irv  scales  are  supposed 
to  be  at  hand  if  others  of  minor  consequence  are  desired  by 
the  workmen. 

The  style  of  lettering  used  for  these  purposes  should  nat- 
urally be  in  harmony  with  that  on  the  remainder  of  the 
drawing.  Practice  is,  however,  not  uniform  in  regard  to 
:der  in  which  the  terms  should  be  given,  that  is. 
whether  it  is  better  to  use  "8  feet  to  an  inch,"  or  "ft  inch 
to  the  foot. "  It  would  seem  to  be  a  good  rule  always  to 
Mate  first  the  number  which  appears  on  the  draftsman's 
scale.  When  the  engineer's  scale  is  employed,  which  con- 
tains those  marked  10  to  60  or  20  to  80,  it  would  be  more 
convenient  to  say  "  400  feet  to  an  inch  "  than  "  One  inch  to 
400  feet";  while  with  the  scales  graduated  in  units  of  >4, 
i.  i-  #.  ft,  &,  *•  .'•  4  inches,  the  statement  would  be 


"  ;  inches  to  the  foot."  rather  than  "One  foot  to  ?  inches." 
Other  scales  and  their  lettering  may  be  seen  by  referring  to 
thi-  plates  which  contain  titles. 

The  lowest  scale  on  Plate  XX  was  prepared  for  use  in 
measuring  the  height  of  letters  when  expressed  in  decimil- 
limeters. 

ART.   ?8.     MHRIDIANS. 

As  meridians,  or  north  points,  are  usually  treated  in  con- 
nection with  lettering,  several  examples  suitable  for  maps  of 
different  grades  of  finish  are  given  on  Plate  XXI.  The  one 
in  the  center  is  the  latest  form  adopted  by  the  U.  S.  • 
and  Geodetic  Survey,  and  gives  both  the  variation  of  the 
magnetic  meridian  and  ils  annual  change.  Surveyors  might 
readily  supplement  the  record  of  the  declination  of  the  needle, 
as  obtained  by  observation,  with  that  of  the  annual  change. 
by  consulting  the  Isogonic  Chart  of  the  United  States,  pub- 
lished by  the  Coast  Survey,  if  they  do  not  possess  the  infor- 
mation from  regular  observations  made  for  this  purpose  in 
the  immediate  vicinity. 

The  larger  meridian  at  the  right  is  slightly  modified  from 
a  form  which  is  more  than  a  century  old.  The  full  arrow 
or  ornamental  head  is  always  placed  on  the  true  north  and 
south  line,  while  the  half  arrow  or  head  is  placed  on  the 
magnetic  meridian.  Ornamentation  on  meridians  mav  easily 


TITLES. 


CHAP.  III. 


become  excessive.     Their  character  should  conform  to  the 
general  style  of  the  lettering. 

ART.  39.     BORDERS. 

The  border  on  engineering  and  architectural  drawings 
should  usually  be  plain  and  simple.  A  single  line,  not  too 
heavy,  may  answer  the  purpose.  A  better  appearance  is  se- 
cured by  placing  a  light  line  on  either  side  of  a  heavy  one, 
or  in  a  large  map  by  putting  a  light  line  on  both  sides  of  it. 
Topographic  charts,  on  which  the  latitude  and  longitude  are 
marked  on  the  border,  have  one  or  more  light  lines  placed 
some  distance  inside  of  the  others.  The  borders  on  Plate  XX1J 
were  copied  from  the  standards  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geo- 
detic Survey,  the  scales  of  the  maps  to  which  they  are  re- 
spectively applied  being  indicated.  On  Patent  Office  draw- 
ings the  border  is  required  to  consist  of  a  single  line  precisely 
one  inch  from  the  edge  of  the  sheet,  which  is  to  measure  ex- 


actly 10  by  15  inches.  As  a  border  adds  so  much  to  the 
finish  of  a  drawing  it  is  surprising  why  it  is  so  often  omitted. 
The  time  required  to  place  a  single  line  border  on  a  sheet  is 
very  small  and  improves  the  appearance  of  even  the  poorest 
quality  of  a  working  drawing. 

The  margin  outside  of  the  border  should  be  proportioned 
to  the  size  of  the  sheet,  the  finer  classes  of  drawings  having 
the  more  liberal  margins.  The  increasing  tendency  to  re- 
duce all  the  drawings  made  in  an  office  to  a  limited  number 
of  standard  sizes  is  to  be  highly  commended  for  various 
reasons. 

Occasionally  a  drawing  on  a  sheet  of  limited  size  may 
have  such  a  form  that  in  order  to  preserve  an  adequate  mar- 
gin it  is  necessary  to  break  the  border.  Several  plates  in 
this  book  show  such  an  arrangement.  This  plan,  when 
adopted,  is  regarded  as  less  objectionable  than  to  reduce 
the  scale. 


ART.  40. 


THb  ROMAN. 


CHAP.   IV.      THE  SELECTION  OF  STYLES. 


ART.  40.     THE  ROMAN. 

This  style  is  certainly  the  handsomest  .nul  most  dignified 
which  c:in  be  used  on  any  engineering  drawings,  but  as  the 
stvle  of  the  letters  should  be  in  harmony  with  the  character 
..I  the  drawing  it  is  limited  in  its  application  to  those  which 
belong  to  a  higher  grade  in  execution  th.m  what  are  called 
working  drawings.  In  general  the  cost  of  constructing 
the  letters  is  expected  to  be  less  th.m  that  of  the  graphic.il 
representation  to  which  they  apply,  but  sometimes  the  let- 
tering is  necessarily  the  larger  part  of  the  drawing. 

While  no  specific  rules  can  be  given  lor  selecting  the 
styles  (.("lettering,  it  may  aid  the  student,  or  young  drafts- 
man who  is  without  much  experience  in  this  respect,  to  in- 
dicate some  of  the  leading  classes  of  drawings  to  which 
they  are  appropriate.  Those  in  which  the  Roman  form  is 
properly  used  are  the  following:  First,  the  class  which  in- 
cludes the  various  topographic,  hydrographic  and  other 
maps  made  by  the  engineering  departments  of  the  National 


or  State  governments;  second,  the  principal  maps  only  of 
cities  and  towns,  since  most  of  the  small  maps  prepared  in 
a  city  engineer's  office  are  rather  classed  with  working 
drawings  in  this  respect;  third,  fine  topographical  maps 
of  any  description  or  si/e.  whether  made  for  public  <>r  private 
corporations;  fourth,  parts  of  the  plans  of  important  projects, 
like  river  and  harbor  improvements,  water  supply,  sewei 
age,  fortifications,  etc. 

All  that  is  stated  above  in  reference  to  the  Roman  applies 
both  to  the  modern  and  old  styles.  The  latter  is  more  ar- 
tistic and  is  therefore  regarded  as  especially  appropriate  ti. 
architectural  drawings  where  the  artistic  element  prevails. 
Roman  Old  Style  deserves  also  more  frequent  use  on  line 
engineering  drawings  than  is  now  the  practice. 

These  letters  are  a  portion  of  the  heritage  received  from 
the  Romans,  and  the  extensive  use  of  the  capitals  in  inscrip- 
tions not  merely  influenced  the  design  but  served  to  perpet- 
uate their  form  with  but  very  little  modification  to  the  present 


6o 


THE  SELECTION  OF  STYLES. 


CHAP.  IV. 


time.  Not  only  are  they  especially  appropriate  for  inscrip- 
tions on  a  large  scale  on  monumental  structures,  but  also  for 
the  smaller  ones  on  tablets  of  metal  as  well  as  stone.  An 
illustration  of  the  use  of  "  French  Old  Style  "  Roman  capitals. 
on  a  metal  tablet,  is  given  on  Plate  XL,  which  is  inserted 
through  the  kindness  of  the  Yale  and  Towne  Manufacturing 
Company,  from  whose  descriptive  pamphlet  on  Yale  Stylo- 
Chiselry  it  is  taken.  The  attention  of  the  student  is  called 
to  the  fact  that  all  punctuation  is  omitted  in  the  design. 
Some  of  the  titles  given  on  preceding  plates  were  likewise 
designed  without  any  punctuation.  The  arrangement  of 
the  title  answers,  in  a  large  measure,  the  sume  purpose  as 
the  punctuation,  and  there  will  usually  be  no  danger  of  mis- 
.ipprehension  due  to  its  entire  omission. 

On  modern  architectural  drawings  V  is  often  substituted 
for  U,  and  I  forj,  in  imitation  of  lettering  made  before  that 
period  of  the  middle  ages  when  U  and  J  were  developed  as 
additional  letters  by  modifying  V  and  I  respectively.  Such 
a  practice,  at  present,  diminishes  the  legibility  and  may  be 
regarded  as  an  affectation. 

ART.  41.     STUMP  WRITING. 

This  style  is  frequently  employed  in  place  of  the  Roman 
small  for  the  lettering  of  the  details  of  plans,  profiles  and 


sections,  and  on  which  titles  and  sub-titles  are  in  Roman, 
because  it  is  more  easily  constructed  in  free-hand  when  the 
scale  is  small.  On  city  maps  the  names  of  streets  are 
sometimes  put  in  this  style  instead  of  Roman  capitals.  Its 
use  for  notes  of  reference  or  explanation  has  already  been 
alluded  to  in  Art.  35  and  is  illustrated  on  Plates  XV,  XIX, 
XXVII-XXXI  and  XLVIII.  A  title  containing  this  style  ex- 
clusively is  shown  on  Plate  XVII. 

ART.  42.     THE  GOTHIC. 

This  is  the  most  useful  style  for  any  engineer,  whatever 
may  be  his  specialty.  It  can  be  used,  together  with  the 
Roman,  on  many  of  the  finest  drawings  of  finished  struct- 
ures or  of  new  projects  or  designs.  It  is  especially  appro- 
priate to  the  great  mass  of  working  drawings  in  various  de- 
grees of  finish,  from  the  roughest  sketch  to  the  careful  de- 
sign completely  dimensioned,  including  plans,  elevations, 
sections  and  profiles;  to  preliminary  and  progress  maps  and 
reports  in  the  form  of  diagrams;  to  shop  drawings  of 
structural  work  of  all  kinds,  whether  of  buildings,  machin- 
ery or  any  other  structures.  No  lettering  is  so  well  adapted 
for  the  streets  of  cities  and  towns  as  the  Gothic  capitals, 
using  the  upright  form  in  all  cases  except  for  the  cheapest 
outline  maps,  where  the  streets  are  a  subordinate  feature. 


ART.  42. 


THE  GOTHIC 


61 


Where  the  lettering  must  In-  very  small  and  the  letters  are 
contjned  between  the  street  lines  greater  legibility  is  secured 
by  using  the  small  letters  instead  of  the  capitals,  the  height 
o|  the  short  letters  Iviiiu'  increased  to  70  or  7^  per  cent,  of 
that  ot  the  capitals. 

The  great  number  of  plates  issued  annually  to  accompany 
the  reports  of  various  municipal  officers,  the  bureaus  or  de- 
partments of  the  State  and  National  governments,  the  trans- 
actions of  engineering  societies,  as  well  as  the  advertising 
hand-books  and  catalogues  of  manufacturing  establishments, 
might  be  materially  improved  if  this  style  of  letters  were 
more  uniformly  employed,  to  the  exclusion  of  various  types 
<  if '  •  fancy  letters. "  The  <•>  5  plates  in  the  Washington  Bridge, 
by  W.  R.  MUTTON,  are  a  good  illustration  of  the  use  of  the 
upright  and  inclined  Gothic  capitals  throughout.  The  gen- 
eral appearance  of  neatness  in  these  plates  is  largely  due  to 
the  style  of  the  letters,  which  are  open  in  shape  and  legible. 
These  letters  are  called  block  letters  on  the  sheet  of  standard 
lettering  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  (see  Plate 
XXIX),  where  they  are  used  in  words  and  names  connected 
with  navigation.  The  style  more  generally  known  as  block 
letters  may  be  seen  in  the  first  line  of  Fig.  21  in  Art.  47. 

Its  legibility  and  rapid  free-hand  construction  render  it 
also  appropriate  to  sheets  containing  tables  of  various  kiiuK 


which  are  to  be  reproduced  by  blue  printing  for  office  use. 

ART.   41.     STANDARDS   <>l:   TIIH   U.   S.    COAST  AND 
GEODETIC   SURVEY. 

The  standard  lettering  of  the  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  is  given  on  Plates  XXVI  to  XXIX  inclusive, 
and  the  student  should  carefully  study  the  rules  and  ex- 
planations which  accompany  the  letters.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  but  few  styles  are  adopted,  the  Roman  and  Italic  being 
the  principal  ones,  while  the  Gothic  (designated  "block" 
on  Plate  XXIX)  is  more  limited  in  its  use.  The  stump  writ- 
ing is  substituted  for  the  Italic  small. 

The  distinction  which  is  made  in  using  upright  letters  in 
names  and  words  connected  with  land,  and  inclined  letters 
in  those  connected  with  water,  should  be  more  generally 
observed  by  city  engineers  and  by  those  in  private  practice 
than  is  now  the  custom. 

On  comparing  the  Roman  capitals  with  those  on  Plate  I 
it  is  found  that  the  widths  of  most  of  the  letters  are  the 
same,  and  that  the  corresponding  height  is  6%  units,  while 
the  stem  is  just  a  little  over  a  unit  wide. 

Plate  XXX  affords  an  interesting  study  of  the  comparative 
appearance  of  different  characters  when  reduced  to  the  saint 
height.  The  italics  have  a  steeper  slope  than  those  on  the 


62 


THE  SELECTION  OF  STYLES. 


CHAP.  IV. 


other  plates  ;ind  their  relative  appearance  should  be  observed. 
At  the  right  of  the  plate  are  shown  the  words  "channel" 
and  "light  house,"  of  the  heights  of  \^,  12  and  10  decimil- 
limeters,  when  engraved  in  three  thicknesses  of  limbs  of  %, 
fe,  and  u,  of  the  height  respectively.  The  differences  in 
weight  are  of  course  not  so  apparent  on  lithographs  as  on 
sheets  printed  directly  from  the  engraved  copper  plates. 

Plate  XXXI  gives  a  specimen  title,  and  Plate  XXXII  is  a 
map  of  the  vicinity  of  Coney  Island,  or  of  the  entrance  to 
New  York  harbor,  taken  from  chart  No.  120,  whose  scale  is 
i :  80,000.  This  map  shows  the  application  of  all  the  styles 
of  lettering  employed  by  the  Survey,  and  gives  them  for 
islands,  towns,  points,  beaches,  villages,  soundings,  quar- 
antine, bays,  inlets,  creeks,  bars,  shoals,  character  of  ocean 
bottom,  lights,  channels,  buoys,  and  life  saving  stations. 

Plates  XXV1-XXXII  are  inserted  in  this  work  by  the  kind 
permission  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  and  were  printed  from  stone  by  means  of 
lithographic  transfers  taken  from  the  engraved  plates. 

ART.  44.  STANDARDS  OF  THE  U.  S.  GEOLOGICAL 
SURVEY. 

Plate  XXXIII  contains  the  classification  of  the  lettering 
adopted  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  for  its  maps. 


The  heights  of  the  letters  given  vary  from  60  to  5  decimilli- 
meters,  but  when  applied  are  varied  according  to  the  relative 
importance  of  the  features  and  the  size  of  the  chart. 

The  thickness  of  the  stems  is  one-seventh  of  the  height 
and  the  inclination  of  the  Italics  has  a  base  of  3  to  a  height 
of  8.  The  relative  exterior  widths  and  height  of  the  Roman 
capitals  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey  with 
but  very  few  slight  variations.  The  greatest  difference  in 
form  is  perhaps  seen  on  comparing  the  O  in  the  two  stand- 
ards. When  referred  to  the  unit  adopted  in  Art.  4,  the 
height  of  the  capitals  is  6l/2  units  and  the  width  of  stem  a 
little  less  than  a  unit.  These  letters  are  therefore  somewhat 
lighter  than  those  of  the  Coast  Survey. 

On  Plate  XXXIV  the  lettering  on  boundary  lines  and  on 
the  margins  of  plates  are  illustrated,  and  a  series  of  guide 
lines  are  drawn  to  serve  as  a  gauge,  the  heights  being  ex- 
pressed in  decimillimeters. 

A  part  of  the  Anthracite  sheet  of  Colorado  is  shown  on 
Plate  XXXV  and  contains  a  good  selection  of  the  standard 
styles  of  lettering  as  applied  to  the  maps  issued  by  the  sur- 
vey. The  scale  is  i  :62,5OO.  This  is  one  of  the  specimens 
published  in  1893  in  the  Manual  of  Topographic  Methods  by 
HENRY  GANNETT,  the  Chief  Topographer  of  the  Survey, 
and  is  here  republished,  together  with  the  standard  of  letter- 


ART. 


LETTERING  ON  PATENT  OFFICE  DRAWINGS. 


ing.  In  permission.    Plates  XXXIII-XXXV  were  printed  from 
stone  by  means  of  transfers  taken  from  the  engraved  plates. 

ART.  4V     LETT!  KINV,  ON  PATENT  OFH<  I 
DRAWINGS 

The  Patent  Office  requires  the  plainest  lettering  on  ;ill 
drawings  submitted  ;is  .1  part  of  the  application  of  patent-. 
The  following  paragraph  relating  to  letters  of  reference  is 
taken  liom  "  Rules  of  Practice  in  the  United  Slates  Patent 
i  Ml  ice.  Revised  April  i,  i<Xq2. "  a  pamphlet  which  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  every  one  who  has  occasion  to  prepare 
such  drawings. 

The  different  views  should  be  consecutively  numbered.  Letters  and  figures 
of  reference  must  be  carefully  formed.  They  should,  if  possible,  measure  at 
least  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  height,  so  that  they  may  beat  reduction  t<>  one- 
twenty-fourth  of  an  inch  •  and  they  may  be  much  larger  when  there  is  sni- 
IK  lent  room.  They  must  be  so  placed  in  the  close  and  complex  parts  of 
diawings  as  not  to  interfere  with  a  thorough  comprehension  of  the  same, 
.md  therefore  should  rarely  cross  or  mingle  with  the  lines.  When  necessarily 
.  ed  aiound  a  certain  part,  they  should  be  placed  at  a  little  distant r, 
where  there  is  available  space,  and  connected  by  short  broken  lines  with  the 
p.nts  to  which  they  refer.  They  must  never  appear  upon  shaded  surface-, 
and  when  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  this,  a  blank  space  must  be  left  in  the  shading 
where  the  letter  occurs,  so  that  it  shall  appear  perfectly  distinct  and  separate 
from  the  work.  If  the  same  part  of  an  invention  appear  in  more  than  one 
view  of  the  drawing  it  must  alway.  he  represented  by  the  same  character, 
and  the  same  character  mu-t  never  be  used  to  designate  different  parts 


The  specimen  drawing  which  accompanies  the  rules  is 
lettered  in  stump  writing,  and  this  is  the  style  recommended 
by  the  Patent  office  and  used  by  its  draftsmen  when  they 
prepare  diawings  for  inventors. 

ART.  46.     LETTERING  ON  ARCHITECTURAL 
DRAWINGS. 

As  a  rule,  the  lettering  on  architectural  drawings  is  some- 
what lighter  in  weight  than  that  on  engineering  drawings, 
and  is  not  so  severely  simple  in  form.  Where  the  artistic 
element  enters  prominently  into  a  drawing  the  letters  are 
modified  in  form  as  well  as  weight  so  as  to  harmonize  with 
their  surroundings.  Most  of  them  are  drawn  free-hand. 

When  the  modern  Roman  is  used  it  is  either  left  open  or 
the  stem  is  reduced  to  about  one-half,  while  the  height  is 
increased.  The  finished  Roman  is  always  left  open.  The 
Roman  old  style  is  more  appropriate  than  the  modern,  and 
the  regular  width  of  the  stem  is  often  maintained.  Either 
this  style,  with  the  stem  reduced  to  one-half,  or  the  hair- 
line Antique  (see  Plate  XI,  line  4).  is  well  adapted  for  the 
titles  of  mounted  photographs  of  buildings. 

The  Roman  old  style  is  more  frequently  employed  in  a 
modified  than  in  the  normal  pioportion.  The  principal 
change  consists  in  raising  the  intermediate  horizontal  'ines. 


THE  SELECTION  OF  STYLES. 


CHAP.  IV. 


thereby  producing  what  are  termed  "  high-waisted  "  letters. 
Those  that  in  the  normal  proportion  are  just  above  the  y* 
guide  line  may  be  moved  up  to  the  2/z  guide  line,  but  if  they 
go  beyond  that  the  legibility  is  reduced.  The  height  usually 
ranges  from  8  to  10  units,  and  some  of  the  letters,  like  M 
and  W,  are  changed  by  shortening  the  middle  limbs,  as 
shown  on  Plate  XVIII,  which  contains  a  number  of  styles 
that  are  suitable  for  architectural  drawings.  Modifications 
in  the  size  and  form  of  the  serifs  also  serve  to  give  variety 
when  desired.  The  first  title  on  that  plate  has  letters  of  the 
same  general  form  as  the  normal  Roman  old  style,  but  with 
the  limbs  of  a  uniform  width,  those  in  the  last  line  being  YT. 
and  the  others  Y&.  The  Roman  old  style  small  letters  make 
an  effective  title  if  it  is  desired  to  confine  it  to  a  very  lim- 
ited area. 

For  working  drawings  the  Gothic  letters  are  used  exten- 
sively when  modified  in  a  similar  manner,  as  shown  in  the 
lower  left-hand  title  on  the  same  plate.  This  form  is  easily 
constructed  and  presents  a  good  appearance  when  properly 
spaced.  The  lettering  on  floor  plans  may  be  in  Gothic  cap- 
itals of  the  normal  or  modified  forms,  or  in  the  correspond- 
ing small  letters,  which  are  either  plain  or  like  those  in  the 
second  group  of  notes  on  Plate  XIX. 

The  line  "  Design  of  Water  Tower,"  shows  the  effect  of 


adding  prominent  serifs  to  letters  composed  of  light  lines 
throughout.  This  style  may  be  used  on  a  composition 
sketch.  Another  style  which  is  especially  appropriate  for 
such  sketches  is  the  upper  one  given  on  Plate  XXIII.  It 
was  designed  by  BENJAMIN  S.  HUBBF.LL,  and  is  not  only 
unique  in  the  general  form  of  the  letters,  but  also  in  the  details 
of  the  serifs.  This  letter  has  a  considerable  range  of  appli- 
cation to  other  drawings  than  the  kind  specified.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  short  letters  are  only  one-third  as  high  as 
the  ascending  ones.  The  lower  alphabet  on  the  same  plate 
is  similar  to  the  printing  type  known  as  "Outing,"  and  dif- 
fers from  it  mainly  in  securing  a  higher  degree  of  legibility 
by  lowering  the  intermediate  horizontal  lines.  The  serifs 
consist  simply  in  an  enlargement  of  the  ends  of  the  limbs. 

Water  color  sketches  require  very  light  letters  approach- 
ing the  hair-line  if  in  black,  or  they  may  be  made  heavier 
and  executed  in  some  lighter  color  which  harmonizes  with 
those  on  the  sketch.  Letters  in  neutral  tint,  or  some  other 
subdued  color,  may  also  be  occasionally  used  on  one-line 
titles  for  photographs  or  very  light  line  drawings. 

The  letters  on  Plate  XI  are  all  appropriate  to  architectural 
drawings,  as  is  indicated  by  the  subject  matter  of  the  titles 
or  sub-titles.  The  proportions  and  characteristics  of  these 
forms  were  described  in  Arts,  i  ?  and  :/t. 


ART.  47. 


LETTERING  ON  ENGINEERING  DRAWINGS. 


Many  of  the  style-;  employed  in  practice  approach  very 
nearly  to  illegibility,  including  even  those  on  working  draw- 
Some  of  thi-iii  are  of  such  odd  and  irregular  foinis, 
and  so  utterly  devoid  of  beauty  as  to  raise  the  question  why 
they  were  ever  introduced.  The  most  desirable  letters  are 
those  composed  of  a  tew  simple  parts,  and  whose  merit 
lies  in  the  shape  of  their  characteristic  elements  and  not  in 
extra  attachments  or  adornments. 

The  extension  ot  the  limbs  of  letters  beyond  the  outer 

guide  lines  should  be  made  sparingly,  and  the   lonn  and  di- 

n  of  seiils  varied  but  slightly  Irom  the  standard  lorms. 

ART.  47.     LETTERING  ON  ENGINEERING  DRAWINGS. 

The  most  appropriate  lettering  for  engineering  drawings 
is  simple  in  form,  comparatively  tree  from  any  attempt  at 
artistic  display,  and  moderate  in  weight.  The  plain  Roman 
and  Gothic  styles  are  used  more  than  any  other  and  then 
application  to  different  kinds  of  drawing  is  described  in  Arts. 
,ji>  and  42.  The  merits  of  the  Roman  <  )ld  St\le  are  so  de- 
cided that  it  seems  strange  why  it  has  been  almost  entirely 
excluded  from  use  by  engineering  draftsmen. 

The  style  used  in  the  first  title  on  Plate  XVIII  may  also  be 
commended  as  a  useful  one  for  fine  drawings,  the  thickness 
of  the  limbs  being  uniform.  Their  width  may  be  varied 


from  %  to  Y\.  It  has  not  been  customary  to  employ  "  high- 
waisted  "  letters  for  this  purpose,  although  a  slight  elevation 
of  the  intermediate  horizontal  limbs  might  not  be  objection- 
able. Where  instruments  are  employed  in  the  construction 
it  is  usually  an  economy  of  time  to  adhere  to  the  standard 
forms  and  thus  more  quickly  acquire  perfect  facility  in  the 
execution. 

The  modifications  in  serifs  and  in  the  weight  of  stems 
which  have  been  described  in  the  previous  chapters  may  be 
used  to  advantage,  provided  all  the  lettering  on  any  sheet  is 
confined  to  a  single  style.  The  good  effect  of  using  only  one 
style  in  a  title  has  already  been  noticed,  but  the  commenda- 
tion of  that  practice  should  not  be  construed  as  being  en- 
tirely opposed  to  the  use  of  minor  modifications  of  the  same 
general  style. 

The  practice  of  filling  up  the  open  forms  of  the  Roman 
and  Gothic  letters  with  all  sorts  of  incongruous  designs  is  to 
be  heartily  discouraged.  It  not  only  consumes  a  peat  deal 
of  valuable  time,  but  the  results  do  more  than  anything  dst- 
to  spoil  the  appearance  of  any  respectable  drawing,  and  to 
discredit  the  draftsman.  If  these  supposed  ornaments  are 
added  for  the  sake  of  hiding  the  crude  drawing  of  the  out- 
lines of  the  letters  the  expedient  may  be  regarded  as  of  doubt- 
ful value. 


66 


THE  SELECTION  OF  STYLES. 


CHAP.  IV. 


There  are  ;i  number  of  styles  which  have  been  used  quite 
extensively,  concerning  whose  lack  of  merit  an  entire  chap- 
ter might  be  written,  but  attention  will  be  called  to  only  two 
of  them.  The  first  is  the  block  letter  shown  in  the  first  line 
of  Fig.  21.  This  style  is  probably  used  in  most  cases  be- 
cause the  outline  consists  of  nothing  but  right  lines.  The 
number  of  lines  in  the  letter  S,  for  instance,  when  com- 
pared with  the  Gothic  S  is  so  great  that  the  difference 
in  time  required  lo  draw  freehand  curves  instead  of  right 
lines  is  far  overbalanced.  If  the  diagonal  lines  are  not 

BOSTON-8 

~  '  1 A  D  O  W ! 


O.      J- 


Fig.  21. 


located  with  special  care,  or  if  the  inked  line  does  not  follow 
the  exact  location  in  pencil,  the  fact  is  quite  apparent.  If  the 
diagonal  lines  are  omitted  the  form  becomes  what  is  known 
as  the  geometric  letter,  which  is  still  more  objectionable,  be- 
cause it  is  one  of  the  most  illegible  styles,  to  say  nothing  of 


the  violation  of  the  most  elementary  artistic  principle  by  the 
substitution  of  right  angles  for  all  curves. 

The  second  style  is  also  indicated  in  Fig.  21  as  a  shadow 
cast  by  an  imaginary  object.  It  merely  suggests  letters,  and 
in  a  specimen  book  of  one  of  the  type  foundries  this  style 
is  perhaps  not  inappropriately  named  "  Hades." 

ART.  48.     MAP  LETTERING. 

An  important  distinction,  which  is  extensively,  but  bv  no 
means  universally,  adopted  is  that  which  puts  names  and 
words  connected  with  land  in  vertical  letters  and  those  con- 
nected with  water  in  inclined  letters. 

The  position  for  the  various  names  should  be  so  chosen 
as  not  to  leave  any  doubt  as  to  what  each  one  belongs. 
Names  of  places  are  preferably  put  immediately  to  the  right 
of  the  convention  which  designates  its  location,  or  as  near 
to  this  as  the  preceding  rule  and  the  position  of  other 
names  and  conventions  will  permit  without  the  appearance 
of  crowding.  They  are  all  arranged  in  lines  parallel  to  the 
lower  border  of  the  drawing,  with  equivalent  spaces  of 
either  2J^  or  3  units,  depending  upon  the  relative  amount 
of  lettering.  The  latter  is  in  general  to  be  preferred. 

The  names  of  divisions,  like  districts,  townships,  coun- 
ties and  States,  should  have  the  letters  spaced  to  make  the 


ART.  48. 


MAP  LETTERING. 


n.imes  cover  the  larger  portion  of  the  division,  the  lines 
being  graceful  sweeping  curves  extending  in  the  direction 
of  the  greatest  length  and  placed  approximately  along  tin- 
middle  of  the  width.  The  character  of  the  curve  ought  to 
have  the  controlling  influence,  while  "approximately"  in 
the  above  statement  is  given  a  broad  interpretation.  The 
names  of  communications,  like  roads  or  canals,  and  those  of 
rivers  or  creeks  are  placed  by  their  sides,  the  spaces  between 
letters  and  words  being  considerably  increased,  the  latter 
proportionately  more  than  the  former.  If  space  is  equally 
available  on  both  sides,  the  letters  are  placed  with  their 
bases  toward  the  convention.  On  maps  of  large  scale  the 
letters  are  placed  within  the  lines  defining  the  width.  A 
very  long  stream  or  line  of  communication  may  have  its 
name  repeated,  if  desirable,  at  different  portions  of  its 
length.  In  all  cases  the  lettering  should  be  arranged  so  as 
to  be  read  by  the  least  possible  change  in  the  position  of  the 
"hserver  when  the  map  lies  squarely  before  him. 

The  spacing  of  letters  when  separated  more  than  four  or 
five  units  will  be  sufficiently  precise  if  their  distances,  cen- 
ter to  center,  are  made  the  same,  except  in  the  cases  of  I 
and  W,  the  distance  next  to  I  being  reduced  about  2  units, 
and  those  next  to  W  increased  about  \l/t  units. 

The  relative  size  of  the  letters  depends  upon  the  relative 


importance  of  the  objects  themselves,  while  the  actual  size 
also  depends  upon  the  scale  of  the  map,  and,  to  some  de- 
gree, upon  the  size  of  the  sheet.  A  study  of  the  standards 
adopted  by  the  Coast  Survev  relating  to  size,  given  on 
Plates  XXVI-XXIX,  will  enable  the  student  to  extend  the 
application  of  the  principle  involved  to  larger  scales  than 
those  used  on  the  charts  of  the  Survey. 

On  a  pen  topographical  drawing,  where  the  entire  sur- 
face of  the  map  is  covered  by  conventions,  the  lettering 
should  be  done  (at  least  in  pencil)  before  the  topographical 
conventions  are  drawn,  the  lines  of  the  latter,  if  as  heavy  as 
the  hair-lines  of  the  leiurs,  being  stopped  before  reaching 
them,  thus  leaving  a  narrow  white  margin  around  them  to 
maintain  or  increase  their  legibility.  In  all  other  cases  the 
lettering  is  constructed  in  pencil,  either  during  the  progress 
of  the  rest  of  the  drawing,  or  when  that  is  completed,  the 
inking  of  the  letters  being  the  last  operation  except  inking 
the  border. 

As  the  course  in  tinting  usually  precedes  the  course  in 
lettering,  students  will  have  learned  by  experience,  if  not  by 
precept,  that  it  is  usually  not  advisable  to  attempt  to  tint 
over  heavy  inked  lines,  and  hence  that  the  lettering  on  all 
surfaces  to  be  tinted  should  be  inked  in  after  the  tintinc  is 
completed. 


68 


THE  SELECTION  OF  STYLES. 


CHAP.  IV. 


The  sizes,  spacing,  location  and  character  of  lettering  on 
maps  is  illustrated  on  Plates  XXIV,  XXXII,  XXXV,  and 
XXXVII,  which  ought  to  be  critically  examined.  Plate  XXIV 
was  designed  and  drawn  by  EDWARD  MOLITOR  especially  for 
this  work  and  gives  letters  of  considerable  variety,  both  in 
character  and  in  their  relation  to  numerous  conventions  of 
topographic  features  and  aids  to  navigation.  The  drawing 
explains  itself  and  requires  no  extended  description.  The 
student's  attention  is  however  directed  to  the  toning  down 
of  the  topographic  signs  near  the  letters,  in  order  to  make 
the  latter  stand  out  more  clearly. 

The  Roman  is  the  most  appropriate  style  of  letter  for  fine 
maps  executed  with  the  pen,  as  the  plates  just  mentioned 
may  indicate  when  compared  with  maps  in  which  only 
other  letters  are  used.  A  map  of  the  Croton  Aqueduct  and 
Watersheds  on  which  upright  and  inclined  Gothic  letters  are 
exclusive  employed  was  published  in  the  Commissioners' 
report  of  1887.  This  map,  although  not  as  handsome  as  one 
lettered  in  Roman,  presents  a  good  appearance  and  requires 
less  labor.  In  the  same  report  and  also  in  that  of  1895  are 
shown  profiles  and  plans  of  various  kinds  lettered  in  the 
same  style.  The  effect  of  using  free-hand  Gothic  letters  on  an 
outline  map  may  be  seen  on  Plate  XXV,  which  is  reprinted, 
by  permission,  from  Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United  States  by 


RAFTER  and  BAKER.  The  characteristic  style  of  the  lettering 
will  be  recognized  at  once  by  all  readers  of  the  Engineering 
News.  From  a  number  of  maps  executed  in  the  same  style 
those  may  be  selected  which  were  published  in  Engineering 
News,  Sept.  30,  1893  (inset),  and  May  30,  1893. 

In  a  city  map  where  the  names  and  numbers  of  districts 
must  occupy  a  space  which  is  entirely  covered  by  other  de- 
tails, an  open  letter  of  somewhat  larger  size,  whose  surface 
is  cross-sectioned  with  light  lines,  mav  be  used  in  preference 
to  a  smaller  solid  letter  which  would  obscure  some  of  the 
details. 

Colored  topographical  maps  need  light  letters  such  as  the 
hair  line  antique  or  Gothic,  or  the  Roman  with  the  stems  re- 
duced to  YZ  or  a  little  less.  Open  letters  without  shading 
may  also  be  employed,  but  it  is  well  to  use  them  sparingly. 

Where  for  any  reason  the  names  of  some  features  cannot 
be  placed  on  the  map  in  the  usual  way,  reference  numbers 
or  letters  may  be  used  to  designate  the  features,  the  names 
being  given  in  a  key  or  index  on  some  other  part  of  the  sheet. 

ART.  49.    LETTERING  TRACINGS  FOR  BLUE  PRINTING. 

The  extensive  use  of  blue  prints  as  working  drawings  re- 
quires certain  precautions  in  the  preparation  of  the  tracings. 
As  mistakes  in  reading  the  dimensions  on  a  blue  print  may 


ART.  49. 


LETTERING  TRACINGS  FOR  BLUE  PRINTING. 


be  \eiv  expensive,  their  occurrence  slioukl  be  reduced  to  a 
iniiiiiiHini  by  insuring  -is  perfect  legibility  as  possible  on  the 
drawing. 

!  In-  letters  aiul  especially  the  numerals  should  be  of  the 
utmost  simplicity  in  form  and  of  uniform  thickness  through- 
out. The  (ii'lluc  st\k-  is  therefore  the  most  suitable.  l.egi- 
bihtv  is  improved  bv  making  them  round  and  open  rather 
than  narrow  and  high.  The  instructions  quoted  in  Art.  4=,. 
with  reference  to  mixing  up  letters  with  ilu-  lines  of  the 
drawing  are  also  applicable  here.  All  hair  lines  should  In- 
avoided,  as  they  sometimes  l.iil  to  print  or  at  least  print  in- 
distinctly. While  the  lines  should  be  somewhat  thicker 
than  are  required  on  other  drawings  it  is  equally  as  im- 
portant that  only  thoroughly  black  ink  should  be  used.  The 
dimensions  should  be  marked  in  characters  of  sufficient  size 
so  as  to  be  easily  read  when  placed  at  a  distance  of  several 
feet  Irom  the  workman,  and  this  implies  that  the  interior 
spaces  must  not  be  reduced  for  the  sake  of  increasing  the 
weight  of  the  lines. 

The  construction  of  titles  in  free-hand  lettering  on  trac- 
ings may  be  simplified  from  the  usual  method  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  Find  by  the  diagram  the  width  of  the  average 
letter  in  order  to  produce  a  line  of  the  desired  length;  with 


this  width  in  mind,  sketch  the  title  by  eye  in  pencil,  find 

the  center  and  trace  the  line  in  its  proper  position. 

ART.   so.      LETTERING  FOR  PHOTO-MECHANICAL 
REPRODUCTION. 

The  photo-mechanical  processes  for  reproducing  line  draw- 
ings in  most  common  use  are  photo-engraving  and  photo- 
lithography. 

The  best  paper  on  which  to  make  drawings  for  reproduc- 
tion has  a  smooth  surface,  on  which  the  lines  will  remain 
sharp  and  clear.  It  is  also  a  desirable  quality  if  the  surface 
of  the  paper  will  admit  of  erasures  with  a  sharp  knife  with- 
out cutting  into  the  fibre  and  thus  allow  inking  over  the 
erasure  without  producing  lines  with  ragged  edges.  Some 
qualities  of  cardboard  possess  these  qualifications,  but  the 
highest  priced  quality  is  not  always  as  good  as  a  lower 
grade,  owing  to  the  method  of  finishing.  Marked  dilFer- 
ences  are  found  in  this  respect  between  the  cream-tinted 
and  the  blue-white  paper  of  the  same  grade.  Of  the  regu- 
lar drawing  papers,  the  "hot  pressed"  is  better  than  the 
"  not  hot  pressed." 

In  employing  tracing  cloth,  CHAS.  W.  RKINHARDT  recom- 
mends removing  the  gloss  from  the  smooth  side  by  means 
of  powdered  pumice,  to  facilitate  making  sharp  and  un- 


THE  SELECTION  OF  STYLES. 


CHAP.  IV. 


broken  lines,  and  to  apply  the  same  powder  to  the  tip  of 
the  finger  in  making  erasures,  as  the  surface  thereby  re- 
mains intact  and  the  ink  will  not  spread  when  the  line  is  re- 
drawn. 

The  ink  should  be  perfectly  black  and  not  flow  too  easily. 
By  frequently  cleaning  the  pen  the  lines  may  be  drawn 
more  rapidly  and  yet  be  clear.  The  waterproof  inks  are 
found  to  answer  the  purpose  well  and  to  stand  cleaning  bet- 
ter than  the  other  kinds.  The  pencils  used  should  be  suited 
to  the  paper,  be  as  soft  as  possible  and  pressed  lightly  on 
the  paper  in  drawing  so  as  not  to  require  much  effort  in 
erasing  the  parts  of  lines  which  are  not  covered  by  the  ink. 
By  keeping  the  pencil  well  pointed  the  lines  may  be  sharp 
without  being  heavy.  An  expedient  for  keeping  the  draw- 
ing clean  and  thereby  avoiding  additional  erasing  is  described 
in  Art.  53. 

Due  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  amount  of  the  re- 
duction, in  deciding  upon  the  thickness  of  lines,  the  clear 
width  between  the  lines,  and  the  size  of  the  lettering.  Fig. 
22  shows  the  parallel  full  lines  at  near  the  limit  of  reduction, 
and  the  character  of  the  dotted  lines  in  the  figure  indicate 
that  the  dots  or  short  dashes  on  the  originals  were  too  small. 
On  the  proofs,  which  were  taken  on  heavy  glazed  paper,  the 
impression  was  excellent,  but  the  electrotype  made  from  the 


zinc  etching  gives  the  result  shown  above.  Photo-litho- 
graphy will  reproduce  finer  lines  satisfactorily  than  photo- 
engraving, but  the  lines  obtained  by  the  former  method  are 


450 


not  as  sharply  defined  as  by  the  latter.  In  the  rules  issued  by 
the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  in  a  bulletin  of  May 
1 1,  1894,  it  is  recommended  that  "  the  width  of  lines  must 


ART.  so. 


LETTERING  FOR  PHOTO-MECHANICAl.  RHPRODUCTION. 


7» 


be  such  as  not  to  become  less  than  »  inch  when  reduced. 
Spaces  lvtwi.-i.-n  liiu-s  must  not  be  less  than  i  inch  after  re- 
duction. Lettering  niul  dimension  figuring  must  not  be 
less  than  i  inch  after  reduction.  Omit  ornamental  titles; 
*  *  *  display  titles  are  sources  of  needless  expense,  .is 
well  as  obstacles  to  suitable  reduction."  The  rest  of  the 
rules  relate  to  various  other  details  and  should  be  consulted 
by  draftsmen. 

The  minimum  size  of  the  reduced  lettering,  here  specified, 
IN  abnut  that  of  the  numbers  designating  the  guide  lines  on 
Plate  VIII.  The  linear  dimensions  of  the  reductions  should 
be  at  lea.st  }±  less  than  the  original.  A  very  convenient  ratio 
is  to  make  the  reduction  YI.  When  the  reduced  drawing 
measures  only  one-fourth  of  the  original  it  is  technically 
called  a  Ya,  reduction. 

With  the  higher  reduction  ratios  special  care  must  be  ex- 
ercised to  give  the  hair  lines  of  Roman  letters  and  numerals 
sufficient  thickness.  The  Gothic  numerals  whose  limbs  are 
,4  unit  thick  permit  a  larger  reduction  than  letters  with  hair 
lines,  and  aie  more  legible  than  if  the  limbs  were  made  I 
unit  wide.  The  letters  should  be  left  perfectly  plain  and 
without  any  shading. 

Where  a  large  number  of  individual  letters  of  reference  or 
measurements  are  to  be  placed  on  a  drawing  and  it  is  de- 


sired, for  any  reason,  to  use  a  style  of  letter  like  the  Roman, 
considerable  time  may  be  saved  and  good  results  produced 
by  using  metal  type  to  stamp  the  letters  in  their  proper 
positions.  This  process  is  described  in  Art.  ss.  The  origi- 
nals from  which  Figs.  22  and  23  were  obtained  were  lettered 


in  this  manner.  The  lettering  of  titles  and  maps  on  a  more 
extensive  scale  will  be  described  in  Art.  s6. 

If  a  table  or  explanatory  notes  are  to  be  inserted  on  a 
plate,  a  still  more  economical  arrangement  may  be  to  have 
it  set  up  in  type  by  a  printer,  have  an  impression  taken  on 
good  paper  with  a  smooth  surface  and  paste  it  on  the  sheet 
to  be  reduced.  The  fine  lines  between  the  columns  may 
require  to  be  strengthened  by  inking  over  them  with  the 
right  line  pen. 

Titles  might  also  be  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and 
Plates  XLVI  and  XLVII  show  what  effects  may  be  produced 
by  a  proper  selection  of  sizes  of  a  single  style  of  letter 


THE  SELECTION  OF  STYLES 


CHAP.  IV 


Anchorage  Connections 


when  set  up  in  type.  Plate  XLVIII  gives  ;m  interesting  comparison  of  various 
styles  of  type  suitable  for  explanatory  notes  and  will  facilitate  the  selection  of 
an  appropriate  style  for  almost  any  drawing. 

The  above   methods  will,   of  course,   not  be   necessary  when  free-hand 
letters  may  be  used,  which  admit  of  such  rapid  construction  as  the  Gothic. 

Figs.  24  and  25  show  illustrations  from 
engravings  made  by  the  "  wax  process." 
When  these  are  used  the  lettering  is  done 
by  the  engraver  and  need  only  be  indi- 
cated in  pencil  on  the  original  drawing. 
The  cost  of  the  engravings  is  not  in- 
fluenced by  the  style  of  lettering  em- 
ployed. Fig.  26  is  from  a  zinc-etching, 
and  a  portion  of  it  represents  the  same 
detail  as  Fig.  24.  Fig.  25  is  taken  by 
permission  from  a  paper  on  The  Water 
Works  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  by  WILLIAM 
R.  HILL  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Am. 
Soc.  C.  E.,  July,  1895.  Fig.  24  is  from  a 
paper  on  An  Encased  Standpipe  with 
Special  Provisions  for  Wind  Pressure,  by  EDWARD  FLAD  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Association  of  Engineering  Societies,  June,  1895,  and  Fig.  26  is  from  an  abstract 
of  the  same  paper  published  in  the  Engineering  News,  Aug.  8,  1895. 


nchor  Bolts  IJ^e  6  6  long 

8  Required 
Cast  Plate  18'square 


Fig 


•Ja           < 

0 

•3 

0 

1 

> 

*            i 

| 

o 

'«     s 

o 

1 

> 

•if         < 

<• 

o 

X             ^ 

0 

i 

1! 

|          X 

• 

o. 

" 

0 

> 

i 

i 

I 

•-• 

i 

- 

- 

- 

i 

•; 

• 

i 

• 

•• 

-» 

• 

' 

16-0 


ELEVATION 


2  Z 


i 

f  S-'O- 


PLAN 


Fig.  25. 


ART.  51. 


FREE-HAND  LETTERING. 


Fig.  16. 


ART.  <>i.     FREE-HAND  LHTTHRING. 

A  number  of  references  to  this  subject  li.ive  been  made  in 
previous  articles,  especially  in  Art.  }$,  ;ind  need  to  be  sup- 
plemented here  only  by  some  general  hints  that  have  been 
tested  by  experience. 

For  the  finest  lines  Gillott's  lithographic  pen,  and  for  the 
medium  lines  No.  joj  of  the  same  m.ike,  are  lound  to  give 
excellent  service.  When  new  the  pens  will  make  finer  lines 
than  after  being  used  awhile,  and  it  is  convenient  to  have 
on  hand  both  new  and  old  pens  and  to  employ  them  as 
occasion  demands.  In  making  letters  of  uniform  weight  the 
pen,  paper  and  ink  should  be  so  co-ordinated  that  no  decided 
pressure  is  required.  The  hand  will  experience  less  weari- 
ness and  the  lines  will  be  more  uniform.  If  heavier  lines  are 
to  be  made  with  a  single  stroke,  coarser  round-pointed  pens 
may  be  selected.  A  well-worn  303  pen  will  be  found  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  filling  in  the  larger  letters,  and  a  new 
one  for  the  smaller  ones.  The  surface  of  the  paper  largely 
determines  the  quality  of  the  line  made  by  any  pen.  To 
clean  the  pen  frequently  on  a  piece  of  chamois  skin  will  in- 
crease the  ease  and  possible  speed  of  its  movi-im-nts. 

Special  care  should  be  used  that  vertical  lines  shall  appear 
truly  vertical  and  it  will  materially  aid  the  draftsman  to 
make  them  so,  if  the  drawing  is  kept  squarely  in  front  of 
him. 


74 


THE  SELECTION  OF  STYLES. 


CHAP.  IV. 


The  Gothic  Style  is  especially  adapted  to  rapid  free-hand 
lettering,  and,  if  well  made,  is  appropriate  to  many  draw- 
ings besides  purely  "working  drawings."  Condensed 
free-hand  letters  are  not  quite  as  legible  as  the  rounder 
forms,  but  ellipses  are  more  easily  drawn  than  true  circles. 
As  a  rule  the  pen  should  do  its  principal  work  on  downward 
strokes,  but  portions  of  limbs  may  be  drawn  on  a  side 
stroke  or  a  very  slight  upward  movement.  When  inking 
free-hand  letters  outlined  in  pencil,  time  may  be  saved  and 
the  execution  improved  by  omitting  the  horizontal  lines 
until  the  others  are  finished  and  then  shifting  the  drawing 
or  his  own  position,  so  as  to  draw  the  horizontal  strokes 
directly  toward  the  draftsman. 

The  main  difficulty  experienced  by  the  beginner  is  in 
avoiding  the  rounded  ink  spots  where  two  lines  meet  at 
an  acute  angle.  To  keep  these  joints  clean  enhances  the 
beauty  of  any  lettering.  Three  guide  lines  for  the  capitals 
and  four  for  the  small  letters  are  sufficient  for  the  sizes  usu- 
ally required  in  free-hand  lettering.  After  the  student  has 
constructed  the  alphabet  several  times  to  scale  he  will  be- 
come familiar  with  the  relative  widths  of  the  letters  and 
should  be  able  to  secure  them  approximately  by  eye.  In 
case  a  tendency  is  discovered  to  make  any  letter  either  too 
wide  or  too  narrow,  a  decided  effort  should  be  promptly 


made  to  correct  it.     Failure  to  do  this  frequently  leads  to 
the  definite  formation  of  a  wrong  habit. 

In  exercises  for  practice  the  principal  attention  should  at 
first  be  given  to  form  and  proportion,  and  afterwards  to  se- 
curing speed  in  construction.  Every  draftsman  should  be 
able  to  do  free-hand  lettering  neatly  and  rapidly.  Explan;: 
tory  notes  and  bills  of  material,  to  be  placed  on  one  of  the 
sheets  containing  the  plans  of  some  standard  structure,  may 
serve  as  exercises.  An  article  on  Free-hand  Slanting  Let- 
tering for  Working  Drawings,  by  CHAS.  W.  REINHARDT, 
Chief  Draftsman  of  the  Engineering  News,  was  published  in 
that  periodical,  volume  XXX1I1,  page  381,  June  i  ?,  189^. 
An  analysis  is  made  of  each  letter  of  the  Gothic  style  and 
the  finished  letters  compared  with  others  improperly  con- 
structed. 

ART.   52.     PRINTING  TYPE. 

A  careful  selection  of  specimens  of  printers'  type  is  shown 
on  Plates  XLI-XLV,  and  was  made  for  the  put  pose  of  fur- 
nishing additional  illustrations  of  the  effect  of  modifying  the 
proportions  and  details  of  the  most  important  styles;  to  en- 
able a  comparison  to  be  made  in  a  few  cases  between  the 
type  faces  and  the  manuscript  forms  of  the  same  style, 
and  to  supply  further  suggestions  to  draftsmen  who  are  in- 
terested in  designing  new  styles  for  their  own  use. 


ART.  52. 


PRINTING  TYPE. 


75 


Considerable  improvement  has  been  made  in  this  country 
in  recent  years  in  the  cutting  of  new  (aces,  and  the  tendency 
has  been  to  avoid  a  preponderance  of  ornament  and  to  design 
simpler  shapes  of  considerable  merit.  The  revival  of  the 
old-style  laces  which  preceded  this  movement  led  to  the  imi- 
tation of  their  excellent  constructive  features  in  the  new  de- 
•  pposed  t<>  the  combination  of  extremely  line  hair 
lines  with  heavv  steins,  which  characterized  many  of  the 
modern  faces 

The  Roman  Old  Style  may  be  regarded  as  the  standard 
book  type  and  .it  present  the  French  Old  Style  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing in  favor  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  The  revived  old 
faces  and  the  newer  designs  bid  fair  to  gradually  displace 
those  which  were  distinguished  by  fantastic  forms  and  com- 
plicated shadings. 

There  has  also  been  a  corresponding  improvement  in  the 
spacing  of  type  by  the  c.uel'ul  adjustment  of  the  face  to  the 
bodv  of  the  type  and  by  placing  offsets  on  the  type  bodies 
of  letters  like  A,  T,  V,  W,  Y,  etc.,  which  allow  them  to  in- 
terlock whenever  two  come  together  whose  greater  widths 
are  at  the  top  and  bottom  respectively. 

The  Gushing  on  Plate  XUI  is  one  of  the  new  styles  which 
has  the  uniform  lines  of  the  Gothic  combined  with  the  form 
and  general  proportion  of  the  Roman  Old  Style. 


The  Elandkay  on  Plate  XLIII  is  an  exceedingly  neat  and 
attractive  style.  The  only  letters  which  may  be  criticised 
are  the  alternate  forms  of  P  and  R.  in  which  the  inclined  lines 
meet  the  vertical  limbs  too  far  below  the  line  of  the  inter- 
mediate horizontals  of  the  other  letters. 

The  Capitals  of  the  Art  Gothic  are  not  intended  to  be  used 
alone.  The  entire  alphabet  might  serve  as  a  guide  fora  light 
tree-hand  letter  without  serifs. 

Hie  Dynamo  may  be  imitated  in  its  general  features  by  a 
free-hand  construction  with  a  coarse  round-pointed  pen,  its 
weight  being  somewhat  reduced.  All  of  the  styles  on  this 
plate  are  appropriate  for  architectural  drawings. 

The  l)e  Vinne  on  Plate  XLIV  is  a  bold  faced  alphabet  of 
pleasing  shape  with  distinctive  substitutes  for  the  spurs  or 
hooks  of  C,  G  and  S.  The  alternate  form  of  M,  however, 
is  out  of  harmony  with  the  rest  of  the  letters  and  R  is  even 
weaker  constructively  than  the  same  letter  in  French  Old 
Style. 

Quaint  Open  is  inserted  here,  as  it  is  not  so  heavy  as  the 
Quaint.  In  general  its  shape  does  not  differ  much  from 
Outing. 

The  Old  Style  Antique  No.  2  is  a  strong,  simple  letter. 
The  curves  at  the  serils  are  round  and  full  and  the  ends  of 
the  serifs  pointed  like  those  in  the  !::v  ch  Old  Style.  M 


THE  SELECTION  OF  STYLES. 


CHAP.  IV. 


might  be  improved  by  widening  it  a  half  unit  and  reducing 
the  upper  width  of  the  joint  between  the  vertical  and  in- 
clined limbs.  The  inclined  limb  of  R  should  have  its  outer 
edge  straight. 

The  Antique  on  Plate  XLV  has  been  extensively  employed 
for  one-line  titles  of  plates  in  Architectural  publications. 

The  angular  serifs  of  the  Cloister  and  Light  Face  Celtic  in 
lines  7  and  q  are  not  more  easily  constructed  than  those  of 
the  Old  Style  Antique  or  the  Celtic,  and  they  certainly  do 
not  look  as  well.  The  shading  applied  to  two  of  the  styles 


is  similar  to  that  sometimes  used  on  Gothic  letters.  The 
Roman  Old  Style  is  not  improved  by  shade  lines.  The 
seventh  line  in  the  second  column  shows  that  if  a  letter  is 
well  proportioned  it  requires  very  rough  execution  before 
its  good  appearance  is  materially  impaired.  The  next  line 
contains  a  modern  Roman  capital  with  prominent  curved 
fillers  at  the  serifs,  and  the  curves  on  the  hooks  of  E  ex- 
tending back  farther  than  usual.  The  last  line  shows  a  light 
face  Roman  with  serifs  of  the  French  form,  an  extreme  style 
which  should  not  be  imitated  in  manuscript  letters. 


ART.  53. 


LETTERING  TRIANGLES. 


77 


CHAP.  V.      MECHANICAL  AIDS. 


ART.  si.     LETTERING  TRIANGLES. 

Most  of  the  manufacturers  of  mathematical  instruments 
advertise  "lettering  triangles."  which  it  is  supposed  are 
made  to  facilitate  the  construction  of  letters  having  inclined 
rectilinear  members  and  to  economize  the  time  of  the  drafts- 
man. 

In  order  to  test  the  value  of  these  appliances,  the  Gothic 
capitals  in  Fig.  27  were  drawn  by  means  of  the  triangles, 
designed  for  condensed  and  extended  letters,  the  third  of 
the  series  being  used  for  letters  intermediate  between  these 
in  proportion.  Taking  the  N  as  a  standard  by  which  to  de- 
termine the  scale  for  measuring  the  widths  of  the  letters  for 
the  purpose  of  comparison,  the  top  of  X  is  found  to  be  5 
when  the  bottom  is  made  <jj4,  the  stem  being  Y*.  If  the 
bottom  were  increased  to  6,  the  top  would  be  reduced  to 
4>4.  The  top  of  Y  is  also  5  when  the  vertical  stem  extends 
to  the  middle.  The  width  ol  A.  V  and  M  is  ^*/2,  and  of  W 
is  6#.  By  giving  to  K  the  widths  of  3  and  5^,  the  stems 


assume  the  relative  positions  shown  in  the  figure.     The 
heights  are  7^  and  5^  respectively. 
If  the  stems  were  made  unity,  the  widths  of  N,  A,  V,  M 

KNXYAMVW 
K  N  X  YA  M 

VWKXAMW 


Fig. 


and  W  would  be  5>£,  6,  6,  6  and  7,  respectively  and  the 
top  of  X  would  be  f>'/2  for  a  width  of  6  at  the  bottom.  It 
is  seen,  therefore,  that  the  triangles  give  good  proportions 


MECHANICAL  AIDS. 


CHAP.  V. 


for  these  letters  of  the  Gothic  style,  with  the  exception  of 
W,  only  when  the  stems  have  a  given  width.  For  hair- 
line letters  the  corresponding  widths  would  be  4^,  5,  5,  5 
and  6. 

Several  ol  the  Roman  capitals  are  also  given,  as  construct- 
ed with  the  triangle  for  condensed  letters,  the  resulting 
widths  of  A,  M  and  W  being  5^,  6  and  sX.  while  the  top 
of  X  is  4s/8  when  the  bottom  is  5^.  These  measurements 
of  X,  M  and  W  would  also  be  modified  on  changing  the 
width  of  the  stems. 

As  the  angles  of  inclination  vary  not  only  for  different 
heights  of  letters,  but  also  for  changes  in  width  of  stem,  it 
seems  evident  that  no  lettering  triangles  can  be  made  which 
will  meet  the  necessary  conditions  as  conveniently  as  a  tri- 
angle of  the  usual  form,  in  combination  with  the  paper 
scales,  whose  use  has  already  been  fully  explained.  In 
their  present  form  their  range  is  too  limited,  even  if  the  ex- 
pected economy  of  time,  resulting  from  their  use,  could  be 
realized. 

The  attention  of  students  is,  however,  called  to  one  of 
the  forms  of  triangles  (Fig.  28)  which  has  been  proved  by 
the  author's  experience  to  possess  certain  advantages  in 
manipulation,  which,  in  the  aggregate,  save  considerable 
time.  It  is  known  as  Kelsey's  combination  triangle.  The  size 


which  is  most  convenient  for  lettering  is  about  four  inches 
high  and  combines  angles  of  90,  45,  i  --,,  30  and  60  degrees  in 
one  triangle  in  such  a  way  that  one  angle  will  not  be  con- 
fused with  another.  This  form  was  obtained  by  cutting  out  of 
a  45-degree  right  triangle  an  isosceles  triangle,  whose  base  is 
on  the  hypotenuse  of  the  former  one,  and  whose  angles  ad- 
jacent to  the  base  are  fifteen  degrees.  When  lines  of  45  or 
1 5  degrees  are  to  be  drawn,  the 
triangle  is  placed  with  its  hypote- 
nuse against  the  straight  edge,  while 
in  its  usual  position  the  sides  of  the 
isosceles  notch  give  the  angles  of 
60  and  30  degrees  on  both  sides  of 
a  vertical,  the  other  side  giving  the 
perpendiculars.  The  most  conven- 
ient feature  of  the  triangle,  how- 
ever, is  a  small  handle,  with  a 
milled  head  attached  to  its  center 

of  gravity,  while  a  slight  curvature  in  the  body  of  the 
transparent  material,  of  which  it  is  composed,  prevents 
it  from  rubbing  dust  particles  over  the  surface  of  the  paper. 
If  the  draftsman  will  also  paste  a  strip  of  thin  blotting  paper 
not  quite  as  wide  as  the  blade  on  the  under  side  of  his  T 
square,  he  may  easily  keep  his  drawing  clean  without  the 


Fig.  18. 


ART. 


SlENCIL  PLATES. 


79 


use  of  an  eiaser.  even  il  it  be  drawn  on  the  (most  white 
cardboard  aiul  requires  .1  number  <>!  >l.us  i.>  complete  it. 

:iall  triangle  is  made  by  TUMI.  AI.TIMIHK  \  Si>ss  i.f 
Philadelphia  which  contains  the  .mules  of  69^  and  74^  de- 
grees adj.iceiit  to  the  same  edge.  Tlie  use  of  this  triangle 
facilitates  the  construction  of  italic  letters  lor  the  two  m<'st 
J. -suable  inclinations  (Ait.  7).  and  not  only  saves  time  but 
avoids  the  netessitv  ol  consti  iicting  the  inclinations  by  means 
ol  then  co-ordinat'-s  and  transferring  them  in  the  usual  way, 
during  which  operation  the  T-square  is  not  in  its  normal 
ion  on  the  drawing  board. 

ART.  54.     STENCIL  PLATES. 

Stencil  plates  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  lettering  maps 
or  diagrams  drawn  to  a  lame  si.de  such  as  are  frequently 
used  lor  class-room  illustrations.  When  the  lettering  is  to 
be  neatly  executed  in  India  ink  instead  of  adopting  the  cheap- 
er and  coarser  method  of  applying  a  colored  paste  with  a 
stilT  brush,  the  partial  outlines  are  drawn  in  pencil,  com- 
pleted on  removing  the  stencil,  and  afterwards  filled  in  with 
a  pen  or  brush.  Stencil  frames  may  be  obtained  allowing 
the  plates  to  be  adjusted  on  account  of  the  spacing  before 
any  part  of  a  word  is  marked  on  the  regular  sheet. 

Where  names  have  to  be  extended  along  curves  of  con- 


siderable length  the  use  .  ."splines  will  facilitate  the  location 
of  curves  of  good  lonn,  which  frequently  h.r. .  .-.  berreg;.i.i!. 
compound  or  reversed  curves  in  order  to  distribute  the  letters 
to  the  best  advantage  over  the  required  area. 

ART.  =,=,.     LETTERING  Wl  I  H  METALLIC  TYPE. 

In  the  preparation  of  drawings  to  be  reproduced  bv  photo- 

lithography  or  photo-engraving  for  use  in  books  or  reports 

either  as  illustrations  in  the  text  or  as  plates,  it  is  often  re- 
quired to  repeat  the  same  letters  or  numerals  a  >  onsiderable 
number  of  times,  as,  lor  instance,  in  placing  individual  let- 
ters at  various  points  of  geometrical  or  other  diagrams  and 
in  marking  the  soundings  on  the  map  of  a  lake  or  harbor. 
In  such  cases  excellent  results  can  be  secured  and  with  a 
material  saving  of  time  by  using  metal  type. 

The  draw  ing  is  plac.'d  on  a  horizontal  plane  surface  with 
a  sheet  of  blotting  paper  beneath  it.  At  its  side  the  type  is 
arranged  in  regular  alphabetical  and  numerical  order,  and  a 
roller  having  a  light  coating  ol  the  best  black  printers' ink, 
placed  in  convenient  position.  A  type  is  clamped  in  a  small 
holder  like  that  illustrated  in  Fig.  29  and  after  touching  the 
ink  roller  the  type  is  firmly  pressed  on  the  drawing  in  its 
proper  position.  The  ink  should  be  medium  thin,  well 
worked,  and  distributed  evenly  over  the  roller.  At  first  the 


8o 


MECHANICAL  AIDS. 


CHAP.  V. 


type  needs  to  he  touched  to  the  roller  several  times  until  it  is 
thoroughly  covered  with  ink  and  on  testing  it  prints  a  solid 
black.  Afterwards  only  one  or  two  contacts  are  usually 
required.  A  convenient  size  of  type-holder  is  just  large 
enough  to  hold  about  two  ems  and  with  a  clamp  screw  of 
such  length  that  no  quad  is  needed  when  the  narrowest 

single  type  is  inserted.  If  it  is  de- 
sired to  use  more  than  two  types 
at  once  it  is  preferable  to  have  an- 
other larger  holder  in  which,  how- 
ever, they  must  be  approximately 
centered  so  that  the  pressure  may 
be  applied  uniformly.  In  manipu- 
lating the  holder  let  the  fore  finger 
be  placed  on  top  of  the  handle  and 
the  body  of  the  holder  grasped 
firmly  between  the  thumb  and  re- 
maining fingers.  To  make  sure 
that  all  the  edges  of  the  type  are  in 
contact  with  the  paper,  a  slight 
rocking  motion  may  be  given  to  the  holder  just  before  re- 
leasing the  pressure. 

"f  nc  ,ines  of  the  drawing  are  parallel  to  the  direction  ot 
the  bases  of  the  letters,  it  is  desirable  to  draw  a  few  pencil 


Fig.  29. 


lines  as  a  guide  in  orienting  the  holder  before  the  type 
touches  the  paper.  Should  some  impression  not  be  quite 
perfect  it  is  usually  a  fruitless  attempt  to  try  to  make  a  sec- 
ond impression,  as  the  least  shifting  of  position  will  make 
matters  worse.  Such  occasional  deficiencies  may  be  cor- 
rected with  the  pen.  The  impression  should  be  fairly  strong 
or  else  the  hair-lines  will  not  come  out  full  if  reduced  con- 
siderably in  photo-engraving. 

To  draw  a  large  number  of  small  Roman  numerals  is  both  a 
tedious  and  a  difficult  task,  while  with  type  the  forms  will 
not  only  be  absolutely  uniform,  but  will  bear  a  greater 


Fig.  30. 

amount  ol  reduction  and  still  remain  legible  than  when 
drawn  by  hand.     Numerous  soundings  in  a  harbor,  such  as 


ART.  >6. 


MECHANICAL  MAI1  LETTERING. 


are  shown  on  Pl.ite  XXXII.  may  be  inserted  very  nipidly 
since  the  s.nne  numbers  are  so  frequently  repealed. 

FII;N.    *'>  aiul  ;i.  .is  well  as  2.2  and  23,  were  produced  from 
.ms    tthuh  were   lettered    in    the   manner    described 


above.  As  the  text-books  for  which  they  were  prepared 
(Roofs  and  Rtidges.  Parts  II  and  111,  by  MKKRIMAS  and 
JACOBV)  are  printed  in  Roman  Old  Style,  the  corresponding 
Italic  type  was  used  for  nearly  all  the  illustrations  in  the 
text. 


ART.   s6.     MHCHANICAL  MAP  LETTERING. 

Plates  XXXVI  and  XXXVII  are  photo-lithographs  of  the 
title  and  a  portion  of  Chart  No.  141,  published  by  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  Commission,  on  the  original  of  which  all  the 
letters,  figures  and  conventional  signs  were  made  by  de- 
vices developed  by  J.  A.  OcK- 
I-.RSOS,  Principal  Assistant  En- 
gineer of  the  Commission,  who 
has  had  charge  of  the  field  and 
office  operations  pertaining  to 
the  detailed  survey  of  the  Miss- 
issippi River,  the  devices  being 
used  on  all  the  detail  map 
work  in  that  office.  The 
plates  will  give  a  better  indi- 
cation of  the  value  of  these 
special  devices  than  any  writ- 
ten description. 

The  lettering  device  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  32  and  consists  of  a  stamp  having  a  movable 
tvpe  holder,  open  on  one  side,  carried  by  a  standard,  which 
is  attached  to  an  open  rectangular  base.  The  edges  and 
guide  marks  of  the  base  enable  the  letters  to  be  properly 
aligned  and  centered.  For  numbering,  three  revolving  disks, 


Fif . 


82 


MECHANICAL  AIDS. 


CHAP.  V. 


each  of  which  contains  the  ten  integers  on  projecting  type, 
are  so  arranged  that  any  number  of  not  more  than  three  figures 
may  be  stamped  upon  the  sheet,  or  the  numbers  may  be 
printed  with  the  lettering  device  by  clamping  the  type  in 
the  holder. 

At  first  the  titles  and  notes  were  printed  with  the  lettering 
device  by  hand,  and  afterwards  a  special  press  was  made 


which  admitted  of  printing  the  whole  form  at  once.  Now 
the  form  is  printed  on  a  separate  sheet  and  pasted  on  the 
chart.  The  lettering  may  be  arranged  in  curves,  if  re- 
quired. In  case  a  title  is  to  be  reproduced  by  lithography 
to  the  same  scale,  it  may  be  printed  on  transfer  paper  with 
special  ink  and  transferred  directly  to  the  stone.  The  device 
is  manufactured  by  A.  S.  Aloe  &  Co.,  of  St.  Louis. 


PLATE  II 


Construction  of  Horn  an  Small 


5i  5*  3  +  1  4j 


..    Construction  of  Stump  Writing     ....^^.      a 


9t 


Sf  Si  St 


lit 


Jt  at 


st  st 


PLATE  Mi 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  GOTHIC  CAPITALS 

4:1  4*  ••.,  5 


Construction  of  Gothic  Small 


'  '  \>   \ 

iik 

..T..\    I 


mn 

I     I    I    I     I 


5*  J 


I 

•: 


• 


-4- 


4*  I  84 

rstu  v w 


..?*.....*.. 

84  5* 


9 

5* 


5  i  5 


-— -— — ^ 


M 


...-I 


PLATE   v 


HAIRLINE  GOTHIC 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ& 

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 


INCLINED  HAIRLINE:  GOTHIC 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ& 

ab  c  de  fghijklmn  op  qrs  tu  v  wxyz 


HAIRLINE  ANTIQUE 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

ANTIQUE 

ABC  DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV  WXYZ 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  ROMAN  OLD   STYLE 


PLATC  VI. 


l+Sj 


7-f  I 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 
J- 


VII 


ROMAN  OLD   STYLE 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR 

STUVWXYZ 


FRENCH  OLD   STYLE 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR 

STUVWXYZ 

ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQR 

STVWXYZ 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


CONSTRUCTION  or  NUMERALS 


PLATt    VIM 


4J 


^^^^      o       -44- 

*i  I  4J  4*  4+1  4*  4*  ~~i  4J  4i 

12:Uo(>78()0  23737  1234567890 


-1       I 
?        I 


4t  4  +  1  41 


4J  4i 


i  3 
:  4 


1234567890      I23456789O 


JJ+i  5  i+3  5 


45 


•  LJ  I   t  I  I   i   I 


• 


56 


90 

j,^^ 


Studies  in   Spacing.      Key  to   Plate   IX. 

ELEVATION  FA  C  AT  AV  AWAY  A 


i'4  /  7  o       i      i       o     54      !4    %     54    %      %    M          *i><»'e.n,v 


254     m     1J4     K      54    i«    i      l-K  2  8  H      1«    l«      y4     «      H     o      H     «       M     o  By  dl.tunoe  t« 

«        1      m      M     ^    ^     %       0      ^        «     ^ 

PA-LTvLV-LY-KOA 

0  U  o  W  1U    1M 

AOYOWOXOYOZ 


<3'  ^       "-        !«      !       «    2^2H    2«  3  9  «        1      m      M     ^    ^     %       0      ^        «     ^  Av,  rape  of  area 

anil  ilistance  12)^) 

PA-LTv-- 

Spared  by  aver- 

age  of   area   and        2^      1%      \y±   >4        ft    1^  2^     2M  4  70  0  U  o  W  1U    1M  Average  of  area 

distance  (2J^>  and  distance  (2H> 


By  area  (3)  2)4      £       %    *s         0     l^  2^     2H  5  .'7 


1 


f  rn  ee  of  a  rea  H 


LONGITUDINAL 

By  Distance  (2)  2         2       1J4    0         54      2     ?        2  6  72  1«     2          2      2J6   1«    I'M    -'54     2>4  254     1%      1^ 

[1J6  2M      2M    2^   194    rM    2J4    254  ~'H     l^     :« 

CODE  •  GOLD   CLAIMS  -ALTAR 

IH    254    254  m     2     1%  256   i>i    r>4  -ji4-     2y  i->4     o    %     i« 

IW    2^    2«  1«     2H    1%  256     H      l«i«      2^  W     X    K      m 

NOTE.-The  values  enclosed  in  brackets  are  inserted  for  comparison  with  the  spaces  employed,  and  indicate  what  adjustments  were  made  for  the 

sake  of  illustration. 


Studies  in  Spacing 

ELEVATION      '  FACATAVAWAYA 

iii       >  1 1        \  1 1       u      _ ±f       i^  i_i.i          t  i^j 

ELEVATION «  «  FACATAVAWAYA 

I J   I  1  \    f    J    >  ^il  ll-J.  J  111!  l    I   I  L  I   l_f  I   I  1   I 

ELEVATION3  » FACATAVAWAYA 

1 1  j  i  \A  i  j  nil  i  I  i  i  i  i  i  i          i  j  (  p  j_i  j  ^  l^j^f 

E  LEyATlO  N  *  -  PA-  LT  -LV-  LY  KOA 
ELEyATION5   AOVOWOXOYOZ 

1111       \_i_f       ii  j       iii        iii      1 1 1 1 1 1 1          1 1 1^1 

ELEVATION8  ^LONGITUDINAL 

i  I  J  i  i  J  i  i  i  i  q  i  L  1  I  l_|J  i,_\_t  i  i   I  i 

CODE -GOLD  CLAIMS -ALTAR 


•<    .    «M       • 

Examples  of  Spacing 

ELEVATION         SWITCH  STAND 
SWAY   BRACING     Asphalt  Pavement 

Precise  Levels       Helical  Springs 

Suburban   Division         Three-Throw  Switch 
Distributing  Chamber     Direct-Coupled  Generator 

Magnetic  Declination       Potsdam  Sandstone 

JETTY  CHANNEL      THROTTLE  LEVER 
MONUMENT        PALACE    CAR 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
.-FARTMENT  OF  CIVIL 


PLATE  XI 


One -line  Titles    or   Subtitles 

Cl  IAMBI- k  OF  COMMERCE.  CINCINNATI. 
CEILING  OF  THE  NORTH  HALL  OF  THE  PARTHENON. 

ELEVATION  OF  WEST  FRONT  TOWARD  VANDERBILT  AVENUE 

SCREENED  NOOK  ON  STAIRCASE 

GOLDEN  GATE,  TRANSPORTATION  BUILDING 

DETAIL   OF  MAIN  FIREPLACE 

CORNICE  AND  PARAPET  ON  ABUTMENT  AND  PIER 
END  OF  GRAND  HALL.  LOOKING  WEST 

fl  1RRAR 


KS-l- 


PLATI  XII. 


-•1 


o 

£ 


DIAGRAM  FOR  PROPORTIONING 


PL»TI  XIII. 


10  ZO  30  40  SO 


\    \    : 


\\\\\\\\\\\\  \ 


.: 


5O 


60      -4       O  6       «        0       * 


PL»Tt    XIV. 


DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA 

MAP  OF  THE 

CITY  OF  WASHINGTON 

SHOWING   THE 

VARIETIES  OF  STREET  PAVEMENTS 

Laid  and  under  contract  on  Jan  1  1895 


To  accompany  the  Annual  Report 

»  of  the 

ENGINEER  DEPARTMENT 

10  Scale  of  Feet 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


PL«TC   XV 


—  ; 

CO 

C 

H 

— 

c 

O 

•U| 
III 

•<  s  J 

jp 

•S          -9 
S           §^ 

pi 

c/5 

_ 

•^^ 

^  1|  i 

O 

'                             t 

1   "5    j 

j    CJ     *    3 

^     5 

r  \  >£ 

<-     z 
e-    $ 

H 

O 

< 

3^  ^ 

H§  : 

K^ 

z                 ^t;< 

C^1       2    c 

5  -     y        1    '  t^ 

T  u  *  -  C             C" 

-                   I  5  1  '  *                  ^ 

U  SJ 

S  i  a  i 

Jjii 

J  s  z 

^ 

r 

U-        >• 

-J   i       '  I                  >           /'""•"" 

;  '] 

^~ 

^V        c^" 

O                                 S? 

Q 

J 

—  '          — 

7^ 

|-                                     » 

^  o                                  ^      c 

f-N 

C 

u 

H 

- 

H 

1'    1 

1    -        ? 

.5 
i| 

[2 

C 

O 

1     ;  ^ 

C 

lul 

-  •«.  -5  J 
c  ^3:  2; 

CJ 

PLATC  XVI. 


For  Crank  see  Sheet  No  3398 
Beam      "          "        "    3321 


CLASS  E 


CAMBRIDGE  WATER  WORKS 

PUMPING  ENGINE  N97 


CYLINDERS  .[82x33x524.  PLUNGERS 

CONNECTING  ROD 

Scale:  3  Ins.  to  I  Ft. 

April  15.  1895.  Bill  of  Material 
N?  3742 

E.  D.  LEAVITT,    Mechanical  Engineer 

3294  CAMBRIDGEPORT.  MASS. 


PLATC  XVII 


Trigonometrical  connection 
of  the 

Rockville  Latitude  Station 

with  the 

Transcontinental  Triangulation 

along  or  near  the  39'-h  parallel 


General  Plan  ** 

CLARION  BRIDGE 

ALLEGHENY  VALLEY  RAILWAY 

2  Spans.  Single  Track  Through ,  185  10  c.  to  c  End  Pins 
Width  I7'0"c.  to  c.  Trusses.  Depth  32'0"c  to  c  Chords 


Scale  ft'to  I  fr 


ORDER  N°  A25 


Pcncoyd  Iron  Worki. 
Bridge  &  Const r  Dept. 
Pencoyd.  Pa.  Jon  4.1895 


Maximum  H din /all 


in 


CONTRACT  N°  714 
Sheet  N°20 

DIAGRAM 


Several  American  Cities 

fix  recorded  by 

Automatic  Rain -gages 


ROTUNDA  BUILDING 

ILLINOIS  CENTRAL  R  R  STATION  AT  I2T-  ST.  CHICAGO 

Shiftier  Bridge  Co.  Pittsburgh.  Pa. 


Scale  ilnch  per  Foot 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


PLATI  XVIII 


COMPETITIVE  DESIGN 

FOR  THE 

PROPOSED  STATE  CAPITOL 

OF 

WASHINGTON 


NEW  YORK  5TATE  VETERINARY  COLLEGE 
CORNELL  UNIVERSITY  ITHACA  N  Y 

C  FRANCIS  05BORNE  )  ASSOCIATED 
CLARENCE  A  MARTIN  J         ARCHITECTS 


DETAILS  OE  CUT-5TONE  WORK 


5CALE  3  INCHES  TO  I  FOOT  &  FULL  SIZE 


JULY  1  1895 


PERSPECTIVE  VIEW 

FROM  CLIFTON  AVENUE 


PREMIATED  DESIGN 

FOR  THE 

MILWAUKEE  LIBRARY  AND  MUSEUM 


DESIGN  FOR  WATER  TOWER 
DETAILS  OF  CONSTRUCTION 

A  BOURSE 


PLATI  XIX 


NOTES 

THIS  WINDOW  IS  DETAILED  FOR  A  STONE  WALL  If  THICK  FURRED  4-IN?iDE 
FOR  TME  SHUTTER  BOX    THIS  CAN  ONLY  BE  DONE  IN  THE  BEST  WORK 
THE  SHUTTER  BOX  15  SOMETIMES  OMITTED  AS  INDICATED  ON  PLAN.  BUT 
THIS  15  OBJECTIONABLE  AS  IT  LEAVES  THE  EDGES  Of  SHUTTERS  EXPOSED 
IN  THE  ROOM    THE  WIDTH  OF  BOX  SHOULD  BE  ADJUSTED  TO  WIDTH  OF 
SHUTTERS.  THE  DEPTH  OF  BOX  DEPENDING  ON  WHETHER  SHUTTERS  ARE 
ONE. TWO. OR  THREE  FOLD    A  SERIOUS  OBJECTION  TO  THREE  FOLD  SHUT- 
TERS AS  COMMONLY  HUNG  is  THAT  THE  INNER  FOLD  is  APT  TO  OPEN 
AND  CATCH  IN  THE  BOX  WHEN  SHUTTERS  ARE  DRAWN  OUT    THIS  CAN  BE 
AVOIDED  ONLY  BY  MAKING  THE  INNER  FOLD  VERY  NARROW  OR  DY  USING  A 
SPECIAL  HINGE  AS  SHOWN     PANELS  IN  SHUTTERS  MAY  BE  SOLID  PANELS 
OR  ROLLING  SLATS 

NOTES 

Th.e  essential  part^  of  this  wiQdow  frarne  are  the  yoke,  weigbt 
box  and  sill.    These  rernaiQ  practically  the  sarne  it)  all  double 
bung  window}  wbetljer  19  rnasoQry  or  frarne  wally  The  outside 
casing  V)  ordinary  work  15  usually  rnade  but  %"tbick.  but  it  15  bet- 
ter a)  good  work  to  njake  botb  1b'}  Cas'9§  a?d  tlje  pulley  stile  IXs* 

The  pulley  stile  arid  parting  strip  should  always  be  bard  wood 
The  widtb  of  reveal  and  jarnb  caQ  be  varied  by  settigg  ttje  frarne 
nearer  face  or  back  of  wall. 

NOTE 

SHAFTS    CONTAINING  TWO   HOISTING  CAGES    ARE  TO   BE 
SEVENTEEN    FEET  SIX  INCHES   BY  EIGHT  FEET  IN  THE  CLEAR 
OF  ALL  ROCK  AND  OF  ALL  TIMBER  CURBING  USED  FOR  SUPPORT- 
ING THE  SIDES  OF  THE  SHAFTS 

NOTE  -  For  I  truss  C  moke  the  one  bose  os  shown  above,  the 
other  os  shown  below  All  material  steel  All  rivets  ^  inch  diam 


Connecting  Rod 

One  of  this  complete 

Body,  pins  and  adjusting  screws  oil  tempered,  steel  forg  wigs 
Boxes  composition. babbitted,  Wedges  and  keepers  wro't  iron 
All  parts  finished  except  at  "x"x"  Exposed  pans  finished 
bright.  OH  grooves  to  be  aU  in  all  boxes 

Forging*  to  be  oil  tempered  nickel  or  crucible  steel  #ttf>  an  e- 
laslic  limit  of  not  less  than  50000  Ibs  per  sq  m,  and  on  elonga- 
tion of  not  less  than  18%  in  10  inches  in  a  test  piece  I  inch  in 
diameter  One  test  piece  from  connecting  rod  and  one  from 
forging  from  which  end  pins  are  cut 

Note:  To  obtain  yrip  G  of  pin  add  fa  inch  ej'tra  for 
each  bar  packed  together  with  the  proper  additional  it- 
mount  given  above  in  the  table. 

NOTE  —  ALL  BOLTS  ARC  }  W.  DIAM  WITH  STANDARD  0  C.  WASHCRS 
ALL  SHEATHING  TO  BE  SPIKED  TO  COLUMNS  WITH  6  INCH  IKON  SPIKES 
9  Of  WHICH  ME  TO  BE  PUT  IN  EACH  SQUARE  FOOT. 

NOTE 

Soundings  are  expressed  in  feet  and  are  referred  to  a  stage 
of  water  which  corresponds  to  a  reading  of  2.3  feet  on  the 
Memphis  gage     Work  done  since  last  report  is  indicated  by 
heavy  full  lines  and  previous  work  by  heavy  broken  lines. 

The  surface  of  ihe  lake  is  400  feel  above  mean  nde  level 


PLATE  XX 


Scale   llsU 


Contour  Interval  100  feel 

Dalmm  it  «*««  3ra  lrv*l 


Scale   1:50000 

(TOO!  U  SO  Mtttrt 

-  JO  Hrim 


J  KlJ 


Scale:  1  inch  to  1  mile 

SCALE  OF  FEET 


10         i          0 


SCALES 
Of  the  General  Plan  isfco 

JO to *0 4O 


STATUTE   MILKS 


Of  the  Details  Jo75 

»4547>tiOII  >wt«» 


'        I        £ J        o 


.1  Mllr.i 


SCALE    1:1000 


100    SO     60    40    20      0 


100 


200 


300 


-100  IT.KT 


BOO 


SCALE:  FULL  SIZE 
The  numbers  give  the  lengths  of  the  ordinotes 


in  decimillimeters. 


PLATI  XXI. 


r  s.  ( •.&.(;.  s.  ii  ORDERS 


PLATI  X: 


Scale  12ooo<K> 


.10 


T 


'Scale  36o 


7»'  43 

Scale  80000 

Scale 

01" 

71'  10' 

.-,1) 


Scale  4 oo  ooo 


Scale  2 oo (xx> 


PLATE  XXIII 


a  be  a  e  1  c  D  i  j  k  1  n\  n  o  p  Q  r  o  Lvvv  xj/ 


z 


^Jl  Ivpbell  /vrcnilecl  1001  xrarlieid    lA/ilaino  •=• 
•:•  Vlevelana    Unio  •:• 

ABBCDEFQHUKLMMNOPPQRRSTUVWXYZ 
THE  WOMAN'S  TEMPLE,  CHICAQO,     1892 


PLATE.  XXIV 


Slat. 


^ 

1  ^^» 

1  A  Jnmii  ly  KJi>a«l  Xfolildr.  T  K  i».-Uxiit 


— -' 


XXV 


U.S.  COAST   SURVEY  PLATE   XXVI. 


Classification  and  Rules  for  the  miscellaneous  lettering  of  names  kc.  on  the  map. 

not  connected  with  title  or  notes. 

GAUGE  OF  LETTERS 

TO  BE  USED  ON  THE  PUBLICATION  SCALES  OF 
J_  J_  J_ 

80OOO         60000         50000 


CLASS  I.  All  names  and  words  connected  with  LAND  to  be  vertical,  thickness  r  of  height. 

s    li 

i     «,wREGIONS,lst.Class,MAINE,CAPE  COD,  LONG  I. 

30      REGIONS,  2nd.  Class,  NANTUCKET,  STATEN  I.,  EDISTO  I. 

3         20  (b)  Islands,  CapeS,  Points,  1st.  ClaSS,  Forming  Harbors  and  known  as  Land  Marks. 
it        \b        Islands,  Capes,  Points,  2nd.  Class,  do.  do.  do. 

5  10  Islands,  Point*,  Beaches,  Necks,  Hummocks.  Rocks,  Marshes,  Of  only  local  importance. 


PLATE  XXVil. 


so      CITIES,  1st.  Class,  NEW  YORK,  BOSTON,  NEW  ORLEANS, 
a       25       CITIES,  2nd.  Class,  PORTLAND,  CHARLESTON,  MOBILE. 

9  20         TOWNS,  1st.  Class.  NEWPORT,  ST.  AUGUSTINE,  PEN8ACOLA. 

10  15  TOWNS.  2nd.  Class,  STONINGTON,  NEW  CASTLE,  BEAUFORT. 

11  In  YUJ.AOKS  AMD  RHAUED  ««TTl.IMH*T». 

12  1O  Cross  Roads,  Landings,  Finer*  not  thickly  settled. 

13  8  Bridgci.  Rail  Road».  Dock*.  Plantation*  fee. 

14  Note.  The  gauge  of  height  refers  to  the  Small  Letters,  where  the  name  or  word  is  not  in  fall  capitals. 

The  proportion  of  Small  Letters  is  J  the  height  of  the  capital  letter  beginning  the  word. 

15  (a)    Regions  requiring  it  may  havu  a  letter  larger  than  40  metres,  but  always  subordinate  to  the 

main  line  of  the  title. 

16  Ib)    Where  size  or  importance  of  the  feature  requires  it.  Capitals  for  Islands  of  the  heights  of 

12, 15, 20  and  26  metres  may  be  used.  Small  romnn  12  metres  high  may  also  be  used  for 
Islands,  Capes.  Points  Ice.  where  the  sise  will  not  admit  of  15  metres  high. 

X*\grav*d  *|  John  ITnufta .  CS.Ceomt  Survfr  nm**. 


U.S. COAST   SURVEY  PLATE  XX VIM. 


GAUGE  OF  LETTERS 

TO  BE  USED  ON  THE  PUBLICATION  SCALES  OF 
J.  1.  .L 

80000         6000O         6OOOO 

CLASS  II.  AU  name*  and  words  connected  with  WATER  to  be  slanting  C<if>it«l 
^^  and  Italics,  thickness  i  of 'height '.,  inclination  ,'i  parts  of  baft-  to  8  of  height . 

2 

n     «  .  REGIONS,  1st.  Class,  ATLANTIC  O.,  CHESAPEAKE  B. 

*      30      REGIONS,  2nd.  Class,  VINEYARD  SOUND,  MATAGORDA  BAY. 

Forming  and  <-<>ntaininji  harbors  and  anchotvigem. 
19  20    .    RIVERS,  BAYS.  COVES,  ROADS,  HARBORS,  1st.  Claas. 

2C  15  RIVEKS.  BArS,  COVES,  HAILBORS.  2,id .Cl.i**. 

21  1O  lurmx*.  MAT*  earn,  JUABOJU.  3rd.  Cla»t. 

8  Hirwm*.  mr>r>.  rant*.  IUMOJU.  tth  .  Clot*. 


.....          ...          ,  PLATE    XXIX. 

i  JVot-  navifiablr  ami  nnt,  wrniuu/  hjirhnrs. ; 


jn  .  Rivers,  Creeks,  Poruis,  Shacds,  Bars,  Spits,  1st.  Class. 

24  ir.         Rivers,  CrefJcs,  Ponds.  Shoals,  Bars,  Spits,  2nd.  Class.   Ledges,  1st.  Class. 

25  I"  It  1  1  «n.  (  Yffkf,  Pandf.  Covr*.  Shoal*.  Barf.  Spit*.  3rd,.  Cltum.  Lftlyrt.  2nd  .  ClaM*. 

26  H  Cmlu.flmiU.Ctnfm.S>u>aU.  Barm.  Spil*.M<..  Cta**.  Lrdy,.3rH   lla,, 

CLASS  HI.  All  names  and,  words  connected,  wM,  NAVIGATION  („  I,,-  BLOCK  LETTERS 

Thickneat  +  of  height. 

l<)  I  Vt«TICALi     LIOMT   MOUtXt.  (IACON1.  TOO    (ILL*.  OIJICT1    OH    LAND    UICO    TO*    HANCIl 

28  15          [SLANTING]  CHANNELS,  l.t  flat*. 

12  DO.  CHANNELS.   ?,,:/    I'/.,..       COMPASS   fCAKINOS   INW.i  W.I.  CUKHCNT  STATIONS. 

1O  00  CHAHHILt     '<r,l   I  I,,.,      LIOHT  tHIf*.  ItU.  *OA  T*.  lOOf*.  VltW  ITATIOHt  AMD  HO* 


ttVMOllt.  VtLOCtrlgt   OF  CV*»t*Tt. 


32  NHL-    Ttir  ffaiu/r  oi'  Itritflit  rrt'rrs  to  the  Small  LeUm.whfrr  thr  nnmr  ••!  won!  u  nor  in  fliU 

Th<-  pmpiirtifit  af  Small  Lettct*  in  i  thr  hright  ut'thr  ,<i/nr,i/  l.-n.-i  htginntraj  thr  ».<n/ 

33  •        heriinn*  nrnt  Rivrr*  rvqtur  in;/  it  tun  ;i   hu\-r  Iriter*  laryrr  th.ut  4<>  iinil  ft)  melm*.  but  O/H  .• 

subortiimitf  tit  the  main  luu-  ft'  thr  ntlr 

fnifht.  C.I.Omft  Sum.  OfUm 


U.S.C.8,  G.S. 


:      DICIMTLU 
METRES 

60 


the  rflttti\f  aj'i>nir\tttct  of  word*  rm 
u&iu**  aflHtrrtnfhmiht    Slopr  21  part*  ul'bajt 


*nme  hrtyht.hitt  in  ili 


PLATE    XXX. 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 


4O 


42 
43 


ib 


. 


SS 


50 


35 
30 
2b 
20 
15 
12 
10 


ENGRAVING 

DIVISION 

CAPITOL 

HARBOR 

ISLANDS 

RIVERS 

SOUNDINGS 

DIRECTIONS 


POINTS 

CREEKS 
rHAKKELB 


POINTS 

CREEKS 


Points 

Creeks 

Channels 

Shoals 

Spm.ll.. 


ENGRAVING 

DIVISION 

CAPITOL 

HARBOR 
ISLANDS 

RIVERS 
SOUNDINGS 

DIRECTIONS 
Points          POINTS 
Creeka  CREEKS 

Channels 
Shoal* 


CHANNEL* 
tHOAL* 


POINTS 
CREEKS 

CHAMHtLt 


Sl.pt  3*1 

t 

CHANNEL 

LIGHT    HOUSC 
LIOHT  HOUtI 

t 

CHANNEL 

LIOHT  MOOtt 

LIOMT    MOUmt 

I 

CHANNEL 
LIOHT  HOU«E 

LIOHT  MOUIC 


PLATE   XXXI. 


H 

OS 


H 
O 


C/3 


H§ 

CD 
CO 

0) 

•a 

o 


x 
<§ 

T)  i 

g 

.       S 


!  1 


3  l 


a 


US.  COAST   &  GEODETIC    SURVEY. 


PLATE    XXXII. 


'  -**      :•  .'.i 


•>  MB 

»  »"          M  *•    **-T  « 


14    *  «« 

•*.       u        *     • 


*--:v-"-' 


" 


I    1^  T*  rP  T-^  R  T  "V  C* 

US.  GEOLOGICAL    SURVEY  ~*~_  '  PLATE   XXXIII. 


CIVIL     DIVISIONS 

.t    t',mntit:i.    'K>H-n*hif>s.  Cafiitals    unrl   I'ltn.-i/ml    Cities. 


A  MC  I)  K  F(J  II  I.I  KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 


Towns    atnl    I  '<ll<Lqes 
abcd<-r^liijkliiiuopt|rstvivwxv7. 

HYDROGRAPHY 

t    lin-i-rx   and  Bas 


D  KFGHIJKLMNOPQRS  TITV  WX\ 

Crerks.  Itiimlfx.  Xpriiu/s,  smiiU   L-ikes.  Pantis,  Marshes   ajtil    Glnt-uvx 
abcde  fghifklmfn>p(jrsln  v 


HYPSOGRAPHY 

Mountains,  Platfaus,  Lines    of  Cliffs    and   Canyons. 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ 

Penks.  small    Valleys.  Canyons.  Islands    and  Points. 
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 

PUBLIC     WORKS 

Railroads,  Tunnels,  Bridges.  Ferries,  Wagon  -roads,  Trails,  Fords    and   Dams. 


MARGINAL     LETTERING 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ  CONTOUR  NUMBKHS 


/ftMMima 

1234.567890 


PLATE  XXXIV. 


7330' 
41  is'r 


MISCELLANEOI'S 

U.B  GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 
J  W  POWELL,  DIRECTOR. 


75' 


' 


PENNSYLVANIA 
HONESDALE  SHEET 


7315' . 
4115' 


Henry  Gannett.  Chief  Topographer. 
H.M. Wilson.  Geographer  in  charge. 
Triandulation  by  S.S.Gannett. 
Topography  by  E.B. Clark  and  WT  Kramer 
Surv«y«d  in  1890.  i 


20' 


' 


ff  /...//,-/-. 

MM  '••"•<  ' 


to 


\t,lt:- 


a 
f 

31 


N  K  W     VilKK 
VERMONT 

HAM  I l/n )  X       CO. 
r.N'ION        CO 


Hoi '. \D.\HV 

LINK 

_HJ  >  1    X  DARY 

LINK 


PLATE   XXXV. 


o 

o 

< 

DC 
O 

O 
O 


O 


ui 

X 


g 
fe 

2 


TITI.K    (>K   MISSISSIPPI    IMVKM    COMMISSION    MAP 


PLATE  xxxvi 


b. 

: 


_ 

en 


CO 

2 

O: 


~ 


1 


a 

j 


S. 


.MI-:CH.V.\IC,\1.    I.KTTKHI.Nd. 


111-    MISSISSIPPI    KIYKH    COM  M  I  S  S  I  ( i\    MAP 


MKCHAMt'AI.    SH-NS      \\J)     l.KTTKHS. 


STKVl-Y  OK  T1IK  NORTHKRN  AND  NOKTIIWKSTKRN  I.AKKS.          PLATC  XXXV'" 


Modem  obedience  to  Acts  of  Congress, 
and  orders  from  thi- 

IIKAIKH'AKTKUS  OK  TIIK  CORPS  OK  ENGINEERS. \VAli  l>K.rAKTMK.NT. 

CHART   OF 

LAKE  SUPERIOR. 

Compiled  under  the   direction  of 

C'oloncl  O.M.  POE,  Corps  of  Engineers,  Bvl.  Brig.  Gen.  U.  S.A. 

From  U.  S.  Surveys  made  between  the  years 

1855  and  1895, 

The  Canadian  Shore  from  British  Admiralty  Charts   and  other  Sources. 

I\iblished   in  1895. 


PLATC    XXXIX. 


CLARENDON -STREET- 


TRINITY- CHURCH 


BOSTON -MASS- 

•MAI1NO  ,M.V  IIV   IVJO 


UNIVERSITY  OT  CALIFORNIA 
,-PAFrTMENT  OF  CIVIL  ENGii42E.C 

.  CALL  w.v.>; 


PLATK  XL 


IO  I  HE 
PERPETUAL  MEMORY  OE 

PHILIP  END1COTT 

N  vi  10.  FOUNDED  THIS  1NST1TUTK 

JULY  13    1R59 

HE  SOUGHT  A  CITY  ^HICH  HATH 
FOUNDATION    WHOSE  -BUILDER 
\ND  MAKER  IS  GOD 


OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY 

OF 


TYPE    SPECIMENS.  PLATE  XLi 


ROMAN 


A.BCD  1-:  F<  i  1 1  1 .1'KLMNOPQ RSTUV  WXY/A 
1  _!•')  ir><>  7  S!io  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 
balanced  Cantilever  Derrick  MODKRN  CLASS 


ROMAN  OLD  STYLE 


.\Bri)EFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ& 

J  /~w 

1234567890     abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxy/ 
CITY  HALL  Granite  Capital  COURT  HOUSE 

ITALIC  ITALIC  OLD  STYLE 

abcdefghijklmnopq      ab  cd  cfg  h  ijk  /  ///  //  op  q 

r  s  t  u  v  w  x  y  z  rstu  V  W  X  J  Z 

Serf/on  <>J  the  Southeastern  Corridor      Second  Floor  I^lail     Dome 


TYPE    SPECIMENS.  PLATE  XLll 


GUSHING  GUSHING  ITALIC 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST 

UVWXYZ&          1234567890  UVWXYZ&          1234567890 

abcdefghij  klmnopqrstuvwxyz  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 

CHICAGO  SANITARY  DISTRICT  STORM  WATER  OUTLET 

AND  DESPLAINES  VALLEY  SIXTEEN-WHEELED  GUN  TRUCK 

Ratio  of  Sediment  to  Water  by  Weight  Graphical  Computation  of  Discharge 

CELTIC 

ABCDKFGHIJKLMNOPQ  RSTUVWXYZ& 
1234567890       STANDARD    BOX    CULVERT 

CELTIC.  NO  2 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ&    1234567890 
NORTH  WING   OF  MAIN    BUILDING        TOWN    HALL 

FULL-SIZE  DETAILS   OF   MAIN   CORNICE      1895 


TYPE    SPECIMENS.  PLATE  XLlli. 


BLANDKAY 

ABBCDEFGQHIJKLMMN/NOOFQR5STUVWXYZ5/ 
1234567890  LAKESIDE  COTTAGE  QATE  LODGE 
GOLDEM  ARCH  OVER  5TAIRS  AT  THE  ENTRANCE 

OUTING 

OPQK^TUVWXYZ    12345676  SO 

UNIQUE  QKILLE         rANCY  DALCOHY 

ART  GOTHIC 


1     •  ""• 

L_^l ^  i  l\iv^    v 


1234567890    pireplaee  ^oo\(  ir>  parlor    Ur?<;ouered  piazza 


DYNAMO 


flBCDEPGHNKLMNOPQRSTUUWXYZ&    abcdefghijkl 
mnopqrsfiiuu;^yz     HIGH  SCHOOL  BUILDING     Terra  Cofta  Details 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


TYPE     SPECIMENS.  PLATE  XL  V 


DB  VINNE 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ& 

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz        123456789o 

LIBERAL  ARTS  BUILDING      Comparative  Mortality 

QUAINT  OPEN 

1234567890 

OLD  STYLE  ANTIQUE.  NO  2 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ& 
1234567890      MATTRESS  WAYS      SPUR  DIKE 

VICTORIA  ITALIC 

ABCDEFCH IJ  K  LM  N  OPQRSTU  VW  XYZ      1234567890 
TYPICAL  SECTIONS  OF  LEVEES  LUNITIDAL  INTERVALS 


TYPE    SPECIMENS. 


PL»TE  XLV 


HBLICOIDAL  ARCH     12  345678  90       2500  HP 

-'#   CARKOIJ.  Al'I^Xl'IL 


ZHHEO-IEI     IPO~W~:E:R,  I'crmancnt    licncli    Murk 

MACADAM   PAVEMENT  UNIVERSITY  PARK 

High  Water  Readings  at  Memphis  STEAM   SNAG    BOAT 

EXECUTIVE  MANSION  Permissible  Unit  Stresses 

CONCRETE    MIXER  GRAVEL  DUMP  CAR 


MINE  HOISTING  ENGINE 


WEST  AHUTMKV1 


RAILROAD    LOCATION      < '(  )M  1'OUN  I)  KN<  J  I  N  K 


PLATE  XLVI. 


en 

O 

pS 

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h—  H 

h—  ( 

H 

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DC 

D 
PQ 

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w 

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1 

u    & 

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H 
S 

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d  in  accordance  w 

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K    s 

Cu 

D  PROPOSED 
ch  they  are  to  be  : 

gi  il 

fc     s        |  | 
u.                 I  a: 

0    o         1 

S  2     14 

<       *f            u    S 

U     3        £  •£ 
OT     w         g  ? 

£        35 
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l  ] 

H 

u 

be 

^ 

Z        '% 
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11 

h 

i—  i 

U 

I 

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OH 

H1^ 

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co 

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rt 

O 

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h 

Zo 
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w 

c^ 
UJ 
Qd 

cu 

Q 

OFTHS 

UNIVERSITY 

;>  IFOPH^ 


TYPE    SPECIMENS. 


PLATE  XLVIII. 


NOTES. 

The  maximum  rainfall  is  taken  an  !."»  inches  per  hour, 
or  l.">12  rutiic  feet  per  second  prr  :u-rr. 

Of  the  blocks  on  this  map  (not  counting  street")  0.24 
cubic  feet  per  second  per  acre  is  supposed  to  reach  the 
v  \\'  i>  Inmi  the  roofe  and  plumbing  of  houses,  or  about 
<>nc-Mxth  of  the  total  area  of  the  lots. 

Of  all  outlying  acreage  one-third  is  supposed  to  be  occu- 
pied by  streets,  courts,  and  alleys,  and  one-sixth  of  each  lot  Is 
supposed  to  be  occupied  by  buildings ;  or,  that  J  x  i  x  1.51 2= 
0. 1 68  cubic  feet  per  second  per  acre  reaches  the  sewers. 

NOTES. 

Contour  lines  and  elevations  are  referred,  in  feet,  to  the 
mean  Gulf  level  and  the  contours  are  3  feet  apart. 

Latitudes  and  longitudes  on  this  map  depend  on  those  of  the 
Cairo  astronomical  station  as  determined  by  the  U.  S.  Corps  of 
Engineers. 

The  shore  line  is  given  at  a,  stage  of  water 
irhicli  corresponds  to  a  reading  of  17  feet  on  the 
U.  S.  Engineer's  gage,  Cairo,  and  is  plotted  from 
surveys  made  in  1876-'77  by  the  U.  S.  Corps  of 
l-'.n  -Jineers. 


The  boundary  between  Kentucky  and  Illinou  in  along  the 
northwestern  shore  of  the  Ohio  River. 

All  possible  varieties  of  expression  being  at  the  command 
of  the  skillful  architect,  the  dominant  expression  of  every 
building  must  be  consistent  u'ith  and  determined  by  its  use 
and  environment. 

NOTES. 

THE  SHADED  AREA  INDICATES  THE  SURFACE 
BELOW  TWENTY  FEET  ABOVE  CHICAGO  DATUM 
(LOW  WATER  OF  LAKE  MICHIGAN,  1847). 

The  unshaded  area,  along  the  river,  between  Romeo  and 
Joliet,  is  below  Chicago  datum. 

VERTICAL  VELOCITY  CURVES 

Computed  from  mean  observed  velocities 
expressed  in  revolutions  of  meter  per  second. 
Depth  regarded  as  unity.  Velocity  per  second 
equals  4.168  revolutions  per  second  plus  O.O84. 


The  finished  floor  is  sometimes  laid  before  the 
interior  finish  is  put  in  place,  but  in  the  best  prac- 
tice it  is  not  laid  until  all  other  work  is  in  place 
and  finished. 


OF  THE 

(  UNIVERSITY  | 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 


Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 
ENGIN&ERINfi    I  IRRAHY 


OCT 

NOV  1  8  1949f 
JAN  1?  1952 


LD  21-100m-9,'48(B399sl6)476 


TU  U/4U2 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


-  -X'  ')K',i,  v-'  V1 :  i "  VIMV**'L!   j     vV'V'VvJ'pjH 

liiillillillliill 


